The terms common-pool resource (CPR), alternatively termed a common property resource, is a particular type of good, and a natural or human-made resource system, whose size or characteristics of which makes it costly, but not impossible, to exclude potential beneficiaries from obtaining benefits from its use. Unlike public goods, common pool resources face problems of congestion or overuse, because it is subtractable. A common-pool resource typically consists of a core resource, which defines the stock variable, while providing a limited quantity of extractable fringe units, which defines the flow variable. While the core resource is to be protected or entertained in order to allow for its continuous exploitation, the fringe units can be harvested or consumed. A good in economics is any physical object (natural or man-made) or service that, upon consumption, increases utility, and therefore can be sold at a price in a market. ... Natural resources are naturally occuring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified (natural) form. ... Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are biologically classified as bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin for wise man or thinking man) under the family Hominidae (the great apes). ... Resources comprise the base material for an activity or industry: factors of production, the economics term human capital, human resources (HR) and innovation natural resources resource (computer science) resource (Web) resource (Windows) resource (Macintosh) resource (political) resource (project management) Resource Distribution, human influence and the effects of trade. ... In economics, a public good is a good that is hard or even impossible to produce for private profit, because the market fails to account for its large beneficial externalities. ... Congestion is a state of excessive accumulation or overfilling or overcrowding. ...

The term "common property regime" refers to a particular social arrangement regulating the preservation, maintenance, and consumption of a common-pool resource. The use of the term "common property resource" to designate a type of good has been criticised, as common-pool resources are not necessarily governed by common property regimes. Human relationships within an ethnically diverse society. ... Preservation is a broad term, applying in several areas where items are preserved or conserved in some manner. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with consumption (economics). ...

Types of common-pool resources

Examples of common-pool resources include irrigation systems, fishing grounds, pastures, and forests. A pasture, for instance, allows for a certain amount of grazing to occur each year without the core resource being harmed. In case of excessive grazing, however, the pasture may become more prone to erosion and eventually yield less benefit to its users. Their core resource being vulnerable, common-pool resources are generally subject to the problems of congestion, overuse, pollution, and potential destruction unless harvesting or use limits are devised and enforced. High-altitude aerial view of irrigation in the Heart of the Sahara (, ) Irrigation (in agriculture) is the replacement or supplementation of rainfall with water from another source in order to grow crops. ... Fishing is the activity of hunting for fish. ... Pastureland Pasture is land with lush herbaceous vegetation cover used for grazing of ungulates as part of a farm or ranch. ... A forest is an area with a high density of trees (or, historically, a wooded function as carbon dioxide sinks, animal habitats, hydrologic flow modulators, and soil conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the Earths biosphere. ... Grazing is the regular consumption of part of one organism without killing it by another organism. ... Congestion is a state of excessive accumulation or overfilling or overcrowding. ... Water pollution Pollution is the release of environmental contaminants. ...

In many common-pool resources, if managed carefully, the use of a common-pool resource can be extended because the resource system forms a positive feedback loop, where the stock variable continually regenerates the fringe variable as long as the stock variable is not compromised, providing an optiumum amount of consumption. However, wanton consumption leads to deterioration of the stock variable, thus disrupting the flow variable for good. Positive feedback is a type of feedback. ...

Common-pool resources may be owned by national, regional or local governments as collective goods, by communal groups as Common property resources, or by private individuals or corporations as private goods). When they are owned by no one, they are used as open access resources. Having observed a number of common pool resources throughout the world, Elinor Ostrom noticed that a number of them are governed by common property regimes - arrangements different from private property or state administration - based on self-management by a local community. Her observations are partly in contradiction with the assumption that common-pool resources would eventually face destruction in the long run due to collective action problems leading to the overuse of the core resource predicted by the tragedy of the commons. In economics, a public good is a good that is hard or even impossible to produce for private profit, because the market fails to account for its large beneficial externalities. ... In economics Private good is an opposite of the public good. ... The tragedy of the commons is a phrase used to refer to a class of phenomena that involve a conflict for resources between individual interests and the common good. ...

Common property regime

Common property regimes arise in situations where appropriators acting independently in relationship to a common-pool resource generating scarce resource units would obtain a lower total net benefit than what is achieved if they coordinate their strategies in some way, maintaining the resource system as common property instead of dividing it up into bits of private property. Common property regimes typically protect the core resource and allocate the fringe through complex community norms of consensus decision-making facing the difficult task to devise rules that limit the amount, timing, and technology used to withdraw various resource units from the resource system. Setting the limits too high would lead to overuse and eventually to the destruction of the core resource, while setting the limits too low would unnecessarily reduce the benefits obtained by the users. This page deals with property as ownership rights. ... This article needs a complete rewrite for the reasons listed on the talk page. ... Consensus decision-making is a decision process that not only seeks the agreement of most participants, but also to resolve or mitigate the objections of the minority to achieve the most agreeable decision. ... } the surface of the planet for the first time and explore space. ...

In common property regimes there is no free access to the resource and common-pool resources are not public goods. While there is relatively free but monitored access to the resource system for community members, there are mechanisms in place which allow the community to exclude outsiders from using its resource. Thus, in a common property regime, a common-pool resource has the appearance of a private good from the outside and that of a common good from the point of view of an insider. The resource units withdrawn from the system are typically owned individually by the appropriators. In economics, a public good is a good that is hard or even impossible to produce for private profit, because the market fails to account for its large beneficial externalities. ... In economics Private good is an opposite of the public good. ... The common good is a term that can refer to several different concepts. ...

Analysing the design of long-enduring CPR institutions, Elinor Ostrom (1990) identified eight design principles which are prerequisites for a stable CPR arrangement:

1. Clearly defined boundaries
2. Congruence between appropriation and provision rules and local conditions
3. Collective-choice arrangements allowing for the participation of most of the appropriators in the decision making process
4. Effective monitoring by monitors who are part of or accountable to the appropriators
5. Graduated sanctions for appropriators who do not respect community rules
6. Conflict-resolution mechanisms which are cheap and easy of access
7. Minimal recognition of rights to organize (e.g., by the government)
8. In case of larger CPRs: Organisation in the form of multiple layers of nested entreprises, with small, local CPRs at their bases.

Common property regimes typically function at a local level to prevent the overexploitation of a resource system from which fringe units can be extracted. There are no examples of common property regimes which solve problems of overuse on a larger scale, such as air pollution. In some cases, government regulations combined with tradable environmental allowances (TEAs) are used successfully to prevent excessive pollution, whereas in other cases - especially in the absence of a unique government being able to set limits and monitor economic activities - excessive use or pollution continue. An example of a global common-pool regime is the Kyoto Protocol, which aims to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases, gases which are perceived by environmentalists to disrupt the perceived common-pool resource of a moderate global climate without climate change. However, though global warming is controversial and there is debate over the attribution of recent climate change, there is a scientific opinion on climate change. Debates and controversy over attribution of access and changes to common-pool resources, as well as its causes, form part of the issue over regulation of a common-pool resource. This power plant in New Mexico releases sulfur dioxide and particulate matter into the air. ... Kyoto Protocol Opened for signature December 11, 1997 in Kyoto, Japan Entered into force February 16, 2005. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ... Environmentalism is the support of or involvement with the environmental movement by environmentalists. ... Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400 000 years Climate change refers to the variation in the Earths global climate or regional climates over time. ... The global warming controversy is an ongoing dispute about the effects of humans on the global climate and the policies that should be followed to avoid future effects. ... Attribution of recent climate change attempts to discover what mechanisms are responsible for the observed changes in climate. ... // Statements Various prominent bodies have commented on global warming, most notably the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). ...

See also

• Common goods
• Club goods
• Tragedy of the commons
• Collective action
• Enclosure

The common good is a term that can refer to several different concepts. ... Club goods are a type of goods in economics, sometimes classified as a subtype of public goods, that are non-competetive and excludable. ... The tragedy of the commons is a phrase used to refer to a class of phenomena that involve a conflict for resources between individual interests and the common good. ... The economic theory of collective action is concerned with the provision of public goods (and other collective consumption) through the collaboration of two or more individuals, and the impact of externalities on group behavior. ... Enclosure (also historically inclosure) is the process of subdivision of common land for individual ownership. ...

References:

• Acheson, James, M. (1988) The Lobster Gangs of Maine.
• Anderson, Terry L., Grewell, J. Bishop (2000) "Property Rights Solutions for the Global Commons: Bottom-Up or Top-Down?" In: Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum, Vol. X, No. 2, Spring 2000. [1]
• Hess, C. und Ostrom, E. (2003), "Ideas, Artifacts, and Facilities: Information as a Common-Pool Resource", Law and Contemporary Problems 66, S. 111-146. [2]
• Ostrom, Elinor (2003) "How Types of Goods and Property Rights Jointly Affect Collective Action", Journal of Theoretical Politics, Vol. 15, No. 3, 239-270 (2003).
• Ostrom, Elinor (1990) Governing the Commons. The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press.
• Rose, Carol M. (2000) "Expanding the Choices for the Global Commons: Comparing Newfangled Tradable allowance schemes to Old-Fashioned Common Property Regimes". In: Duke Environmental Law & Policy Forum, Vol. X, No. 2, Spring 2000. [3]