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also known as "The Eucharist" or "The Lord's Supper"

Instituted by Jesus Christ

Theology Consecration Consubstantiation Memorialism Real Presence Transubstantiation Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1211x1096, 178 KB) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... This article presents a description of Jesus life, as based on the four gospels. ... To consecrate an inanimate object is to dedicate it in a ritual to a special purpose, usually religious. ... Consubstantiation is a theory which (like the competing theory of transubstantiation, with which it is often contrasted) attempts to describe the nature of the Christian Eucharist in terms of philosophical metaphysics. ... Memorialism is the belief held by many Christian denominations that the elements of bread and wine (or juice) in the Eucharist (more often referred to as The Lords Supper by memorialists) are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus, the feast being primarily a memorial meal. ... Real Presence is the Christian belief and doctrine that Jesus the Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist or Holy Communion. ... Transubstantiation is the belief held by many Christian denominations that the Eucharistic elements of bread and wine are changed into the body and blood of Jesus during Consecration. ...

Theologies contrasted Ecclesial communities contrasted in relation to Eucharistic theology: // Orthodox Christianity primary theological development from early Church Fathers, esp. ...

Important theologians Paul ·Aquinas Augustine · Calvin Chrysostom · Cranmer Luther · Zwingli An early portrait of the Apostle Paul. ... St Thomas Aquinas Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225 – March 7, 1274) was an Italian Catholic philosopher and theologian in the scholastic tradition. ... St. ... John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was a prominent Christian theologian during the Protestant Reformation and is the namesake of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism. ... John Chrysostom (347 - 407) was a notable Christian bishop and preacher from the 4th and 5th centuries in Syria and Constantinople. ... Thomas Cranmer (July 2, 1489 - March 21, 1556) was the Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of the English kings Henry VIII and Edward VI. Born in 1489 at Nottingham, Cranmer was educated at Jesus College, Cambridge and became a priest following the death of his first wife. ... The Luther seal Martin Luther (November 10, 1483–February 18, 1546) was a German theologian, an Augustinian monk, and an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation and deeply influenced the doctrines and culture of the Lutheran and Protestant traditions. ... Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (January 1, 1484 – October 10, 1531) was the leader of the Swiss Reformation and founder of the Swiss Reformed Churches. ...

Related Articles Christianity Catholic Historic Roots Closed and Open Table Divine Liturgy Eucharistic adoration Eucharistic discipline First Communion Infant Communion Mass · Sacrament Sanctification Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament writings of his early followers. ... The historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology are the basis upon which a number of ecclesial communities, or churches, express their faith in the bread of life as given by Jesus, and are to be found in the Church Fathers, Scripture, the writings of Thomas Aquinas, and other early church... Closed communion is the practice of restricting the serving of the elements of communion (also called Eucharist, The Lords Supper) to those who are members of a particular church, denomination, sect, or congregation. ... Open communion refers to Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive communion (also called the Eucharist or the Lords Supper). ... The Divine Liturgy is the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern-Rite Catholic eucharistic service. ... Eucharistic adoration is a practice of the Roman Catholic Church in which the Blessed Sacrament is exposed to and adored by the faithful. ... Eucharistic discipline is the term applied to the regulations and practices associated with an individual preparing for the reception of the Eucharist. ... The First Communion (First Holy Communion) is a Roman Catholic ceremony. ... One of the all-too-often-forgotten customs of the Early Church was that of Infant Communion. ... Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI) presiding at the 2005 Easter Vigil Mass in place of the dying Pope John Paul II. Mass is the term used of the celebration of the Eucharist in the Latin rites of the Roman Catholic Church. ... A sacrament is a Christian rite that mediates divine grace. ... Sanctification or in its verb form, sanctify, literally means to set apart for special use or purpose, that is, to make holy or sacred (compare Latin sanctus holy). Therefore sanctification refers to the state or process of being set apart, i. ...

Communion, more widely known as the Eucharist, is the rite that Christians perform in fulfillment of Jesus's instruction, as recounted in the New Testament (Luke 22:19; 1 Corinthians 11:24-25), to do in memory of him what at his Last Supper he did when he gave his disciples bread, saying: "This is my body", and wine saying:"This is my blood." The rite is classified as one of the Christian sacraments. The word Eucharist is also applied to the bread and wine consecrated in the course of the rite and in which Christians in general recognize a special presence of Christ, though they differ about the mode, locus and time of that presence. Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament writings of his early followers. ... // Jesus, or Jesus of Nazareth, also known as Jesus Christ, is Christianitys central figure, both as Messiah and, for most Christians, as God incarnate. ... The New Testament, sometimes called the Greek Testament or Greek Scriptures is the name given to the part of the Christian Bible that was written after the birth of Jesus. ... This article relates the event related in the New Testament of the Bible, see The Last Supper (disambiguation) for other uses, including a list of famous works of art with this name. ... A sacrament is a Christian rite that mediates divine grace. ...

Terminology

• "Eucharist", from Greek Εὐχαριστία eucharistia, meaning thanksgiving, is the term with the earliest established historical use. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch, who was martyred in Rome in about 110, uses the term "Eucharist" three times in his letter to the Smyrnaeans and once in his letter to the Philadelphians. In his Apology (written in about 150), St Justin Martyr said it was the name that Christians then used: "This food is called among us the Eucharist..." (Apology, 66). It is still today the term that Catholics, Orthodox, Anglicans, and Lutherans normally use to refer both to the rite and to the consecrated bread and wine. More minimalist Protestant traditions use this term rarely, but do not reject it entirely.

• "Communion", from Latin communio, meaning sharing in common, is a term that Roman Catholic and Orthodox Christians apply typically to the consecrated bread and wine and to actual reception of them, not to the Eucharistic rite as a whole. However, groups that originated in the Protestant Reformation do use this term in the broader sense, sometimes to indicate that in their view there is really nothing more to the rite than this narrower sense. Since the term Communion also often refers to the relationship of Christians, as individuals or as a Church, with God and with other Christians (see Communion, Christian meaning), they (especially Anglicans) generally prefer for the Eucharist the fuller term "Holy Communion". Some may also avoid the term sacrament, preferring ordinance: not a channel of grace but an expression of faith and obedience of the Christian community.

• "The Lord's Supper" and "the Breaking of Bread" are terms that the New Testament (1 Corinthians 11:20; Acts 2:42, 46) applies to celebration of the Eucharistic rite. The first of these terms tends to be preferred by minimalist traditions, especially those strongly influenced by Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli and the Restoration Movement. Other Churches too use each of these terms when speaking of the rite, but generally not as their basic everyday term.

• Still other terms tend to be associated with one particular Christian tradition, such as "the Divine Liturgy" (the Eastern Orthodox and the associated Eastern Catholic Churches). Roman Catholics use at times, as well as all the terms above, many others, including: "the Mass", "the Memorial of the Passion, Death and Resurrection of the Lord", "the Holy Sacrifice", "the Holy Mysteries", "the Blessed Sacrament of the Altar" (Compendium of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, 275; cf. also Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1328-1332[1]).

Icon of Ignatius being eaten by lions St. ... For other uses, see number 110. ... For other uses, see number 150. ... Saint Justin Martyr (Justin the Martyr) (c. ... The Vladimir Icon, one of the most venerated of Orthodox Christian icons of Mary. ... The term Anglican (from the Angles or English) describes those people and churches following the religious traditions developed by the established Church of England. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... The Protestant Reformation was a movement which emerged in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church in Western Europe. ... Communion (in Greek, κοινωνία) is the term Christians use to indicate a relationship of sharing with others, in particular with God and with other Christians. ... Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (January 1, 1484 – October 10, 1531) was the leader of the Swiss Reformation and founder of the Swiss Reformed Churches. ... The Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement (or simply, Restoration Movement) is a religious reform movement born in the early 1800s in the United States. ... The term Eastern Rites may refer to the liturgical rites used by many ancient Christian Churches of Eastern Europe and the Middle East that, while being part of the Roman Catholic Church, are distinct from the Latin Rite or Western Church. ... Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI) presiding at the 2005 Easter Vigil Mass in place of the dying Pope John Paul II. Mass is the term used of the celebration of the Eucharist in the Latin rites of the Roman Catholic Church. ... The Catechism of the Catholic Church, or CCC, is an official exposition of the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church, first published in French in 1992 with the authorization of Pope John Paul II.[1] To correspond exactly with the official text in Latin,[2] which appeared in 1997, five...

Biblical roots of the Eucharist

The three synoptic Gospels (Matthew [2], Mark [3], and Luke [4]) as well as Saint Paul's first Letter to the Corinthians [5] contain versions of the Words of Institution spoken by Jesus at the Last Supper: "Take, eat, this is my body ... Take, drink, this is my blood ... Do this in remembrance of me." All subsequent celebration of the Eucharist is based on this injunction. The Synoptic Gospels is a term used by modern New Testament scholars for the Gospels according to Matthew, Mark, and Luke of the New Testament in the Bible. ... An early portrait of the Apostle Paul. ... See also: Second Epistle to the Corinthians and Third Epistle to the Corinthians The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ... The words of Christ, This is my body. ... // Jesus, or Jesus of Nazareth, also known as Jesus Christ, is Christianitys central figure, both as Messiah and, for most Christians, as God incarnate. ... This article relates the event related in the New Testament of the Bible, see The Last Supper (disambiguation) for other uses, including a list of famous works of art with this name. ...

See also: Historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology The historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology are the basis upon which a number of ecclesial communities, or churches, express their faith in the bread of life as given by Jesus, and are to be found in the Church Fathers, Scripture, the writings of Thomas Aquinas, and other early church...

Eucharistic theologies

The Eucharist has always been at the center of Christian worship, though theological interpretations vary. In general, Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Eastern Orthodox traditions: see the Eucharist as the fulfillment of the Divine Economy (God's plan for the salvation of humanity from sin), a commemoration and making present of Jesus's Crucifixion on Calvary and his Resurrection, the means for Christians to unite with God and with each other, and the giving of thanks for all these things. Differences in Eucharistic theology tend to be related to differences in understanding of these areas. Salvation refers to deliverance from some undesirable state or condition. ... Sin has been a term most usually used in a religious context, and today describes any lack of conformity to the will of God; especially, any willful disregard for the norms revealed by God is a sin. ... Crucifixion is an ancient method of execution, in which the victim was tied or nailed to a large wooden cross (Latin: crux) and left to hang there until dead. ... Calvary (Golgotha) is the English-language name given to the hill outside Jerusalem on which Jesus was crucified according to Christian tradition. ... According to the New Testament, especially the Gospels, Jesus, also called Christ, had the power to lay his life down and to take it up again, being both human and God as well as the Promised Messiah. ...

Roman Catholic

The Eucharist is one of the seven Roman Catholic sacraments that confer sanctifying grace and assist souls in attaining union with God. According to the Second Vatican Council the Eucharist is the "source and summit of Christian life". [6] The Catholic Church teaches that the Eucharist is really, truly, and substantially the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Jesus Christ under the appearances of bread and wine. It rejects as heresy the belief that the Eucharist merely symbolizes Christ or merely commemorates solely His suffering and death. See Mass (liturgy). The Roman Catholic Church, also called the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian body in the world. ... The practice of the Roman Catholic Church includes seven sacraments. ... The Second Vatican Council, or Vatican II, was an Ecumenical Council of the Roman Catholic Church opened under Pope John XXIII in 1962 and closed under Pope Paul VI in 1965. ... Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI) presiding at the 2005 Easter Vigil Mass in place of the dying Pope John Paul II. Mass is the term used of the celebration of the Eucharist in the Latin rites of the Roman Catholic Church. ...

Eucharistic union with God is a primary component in the Catholic conception of prayer life, in which one progresses first along the purgative way, e.g., confessing sins before receiving communion, a tradition dating from the earliest period of the Church. Later, one passes along to the illuminative and unitive ways (see prayer). Nourished by the Eucharist, the Catholic faithful seek to live by Christ, as Christ lives by the Father. Prayer is an effort to communicate with God, or to some deity or deities, or another form of spiritual entity, or otherwise, either to offer praise, to make a request, or simply to express ones thoughts and emotions. ...

The Catholic Church teaches that at the Consecration of the Mass (when the priest says "This is my Body" and "This is my Blood"), the "substance" (essential reality) of the bread and wine is changed into that of the Body and Blood of Christ, while the "accidents" (attributes or appearances, such as taste, texture, size, smell, etc.) remain unchanged. This change is called transubstantiation. Transubstantiation is the belief held by many Christian denominations that the Eucharistic elements of bread and wine are changed into the body and blood of Jesus during Consecration. ...

Catholic doctrine holds that the elements are not only spiritually transformed, but rather are actually (substantially) transformed into the Body and Blood of Christ. The elements retain the appearance or "accidents" of bread and wine, but are indeed the actual Body and Blood of Christ, the true, real presence of Jesus in the Eucharist. Look up Substance on Wiktionary, the free dictionary * in philosophy, Substance is that element of an object without which it would not exist. ... In philosophy, an accident is a property that its bearer has contingently—that is, a property which its bearer could have failed to have (without having failed to exist), had things been different. ... // Jesus, or Jesus of Nazareth, also known as Jesus Christ, is Christianitys central figure, both as Messiah and, for most Christians, as God incarnate. ...

"Substance" as a philosophical term describes what a given object is, the properties of the object that are essential to "it" being "it." Without its substance, an object ceases to be what it "is." Accidents are non-essential properties; even without its accidents (such as color, taste, or shape), an object remains what it "is." For example, hair is an accident of humans, while being a mammal is substantial. If a human loses its hair, it is still human. If a human stops being a mammal, it is no longer a human, because being a mammal is essential to being human. Likewise, at the consecration, the Eucharistic elements are trans-substance-iated; while the non-essential properties (shape, taste, color) remain the same, the essence of what it "is" changes into Christ's Body and Blood.

Because Catholics believe the Eucharist is really and truly Christ Himself under the appearances of bread and wine, they offer adoration to the Eucharist. Their worship is directed to the risen and living Christ, whose body and blood they believe the Eucharist to be, and not to the for them no longer existing bread and wine. The Eucharist is stored in the tabernacle of every Catholic church and Catholics genuflect as a sign of respect when entering Its presence. The consecrated elements may be used to give a special blessing, called Eucharistic Benediction. Eucharistic adoration is a practice of the Roman Catholic Church in which the Blessed Sacrament is exposed to and adored by the faithful. ... For the Feast of Tabernacles, see Sukkot. ... Genuflection is an act of reverence consisting of falling onto (usually) one knee. ... A benediction is a short invocation for divine help, blessing and guidance, usually after a church worship service. ...

The Catholic Church does not recognize the Eucharist of Protestant Churches as valid, considering that Protestant ministers lack the sacramental power to effect transubstantiation. Therefore, a Catholic would not genuflect before the Eucharist of a Protestant church.

The Catholic doctrine requiring that communion wafers must be made from wheat flour (unleavened in the Western tradition, leavened in the Eastern) has raised criticism from some who cannot safely consume wheat gluten (even approved low-gluten wafers), such as sufferers of coeliac disease, and whose requests to use rice wafers have been denied [7]. The Church's response is that, since Christ is now risen, his body and blood are united and, as those who receive only the consecrated bread receive his body accompanied by his blood, those who only receive the consecrated wine receive his blood accompanied by his body. The Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1390 states: Doctrine, from Latin doctrina, (compare doctor), means a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the body of teachings in a branch of knowledge or belief system. ... Species T. boeoticum T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta References:   ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat (Triticum spp. ... A leavening agent is an organism or substance that when added to a dough of flour and water causes it to rise by evolving carbon dioxide or other gases that become trapped as bubbles within the dough. ... Latin Rite, in the singular and accompanied, in English, by the definite article, is the term used in documents of the Catholic Church, including the opening canon of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, to refer to the particular Churches within it that developed in the area of western Europe... The term Eastern Rites may refer to the liturgical rites used by many ancient Christian Churches of Eastern Europe and the Middle East that, while being part of the Roman Catholic Church, are distinct from the Latin Rite or Western Church. ... Wheat - a prime source of gluten Gluten is an amorphous ergastic protein found combined with starch in the endosperm of some cereals, notably wheat, rye, and barley. ... Coeliac disease (also called celiac disease, non-tropical sprue, c(o)eliac sprue and gluten intolerance) is an autoimmune disorder characterised by permanent damage or flattening to all or part of the villi lining the small intestine, causing scar tissue that cannot be used to absorb nutrients. ... Binomial name Oryza sativa L. Rice (Oryza sativa) is a species of grass in the genus Oryza, native to tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia, where it grows in wetlands. ...

For we do not receive in the Sacred Host one part of Christ and in the Chalice the other, as though our reception of the totality depended upon our partaking of both forms; on the contrary, under the appearance of bread alone, as well as under the appearance of wine alone, we receive Christ whole and entire (cf. Council of Trent, Sess. XIII, can. iii).

See Transubstantiation and historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology. Transubstantiation is the belief held by many Christian denominations that the Eucharistic elements of bread and wine are changed into the body and blood of Jesus during Consecration. ... The historical roots of Catholic Eucharistic theology are the basis upon which a number of ecclesial communities, or churches, express their faith in the bread of life as given by Jesus, and are to be found in the Church Fathers, Scripture, the writings of Thomas Aquinas, and other early church...

Anglican/Episcopal

The Thirty-Nine Articles of 1571, the Church of England's traditional core of official doctrine, explicitly denies transubstantiation, but also, quoting 1 Corinthians 10:16, states that "the Bread which we break is a partaking of the Body of Christ; and likewise the Cup of Blessing is a partaking of the Blood of Christ" (Articles of Religion, Article XXVIII: Of the Lord's Supper). The fact that both the elements and "Body" and "Blood" are all capitalized is reflected in the wide range of theological beliefs on the Eucharist among Anglicans. The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... The Episcopal Church may refer to several members of the Anglican Communion, including: Episcopal Church in the United States of America Scottish Episcopal Church Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East Episcopal Church of Cuba idk of the Sudan Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church ... The Thirty-Nine Articles are the defining statements of Anglican doctrine. ... Events January 11 - Austrian nobility is granted Freedom of religion. ... The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England and acts as the mother and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion as well as a founding member of the Porvoo Communion. ...

By stating belief in "a partaking" of Christ in "the Supper of the Lord", Anglicanism recognizes some form of real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. There is a wide range of views on what this means: a merely spiritual presence, or also a bodily presence. Most Anglicans most likely believe in a bodily and spiritual presence of Christ, claiming that, though this Article XXVIII says that transubstantiation "is repugnant to the plain words of Scripture, overthroweth the nature of a Sacrament, and hath given occasion to many superstitions", transubstantiation was rejected only because it wasn't acknowledged by an Ecumenical Council, while other forms of Holy Tradition (particularly that of the Church Fathers) did teach that Christ was both physically and spiritually Present. Anglo-Catholics especially, arguing that the Articles of Religion are to be interpreted as written by certain Anglicans at a certain point in history, accept the idea of transubstantiation, citing also the fact that Henry VIII defended this view in his Assertio septem sacramentorum adversus Martinum Lutherum (1521). Other Anglicans (particularly those who follow more Reformed theology) argue that the Articles still apply today and must be interpreted literally; in view, then, of the statement in the same Article that "the Body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten, in the Supper, only after an heavenly and spiritual manner", they believe only in a spiritual presence of Christ in the sacrament. The terms Anglo-Catholic and Anglo-Catholicism describe people, groups, ideas, customs and practices within Anglicanism that emphasise continuity with Catholic tradition. ... Henry VIII (28 June 1491 – 28 January 1547) was King of England and Lord of Ireland (later King of Ireland) from 22 April 1509 until his death. ... Events January 3 - Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther. ... The Reformed churches are a group of Protestant denominations historically related by a similar Zwinglian or Calvinist system of doctrine but organizationally independent. ...

Perhaps most Anglicans would agree with Anglican author C. S. Lewis, who famously summed up the Anglican position as: "The command, after all, was Take, eat: not Take, understand." This probably meant, for Lewis, Objective Reality, and Pious Silence (see below) before a Holy Mystery, since he was a well-known Anglo-Catholic; others may interpret it differently. Clive Staples Lewis (November 29, 1898 – November 22, 1963), commonly referred to as C. S. Lewis, was an Irish author and scholar, born into a Protestant family in Belfast, though mostly resident in England. ...

A quatrain attributed to Elizabeth I (before she became queen) as her response to then Queen Mary I expressed her belief in terms that, though ambiguous, are said to have been enough to save her from the execution that might have befallen her, had they been insufficiently "Catholic": Elizabeth I Queen of England and Ireland Queen of France, nominal title Elizabeth I (September 7, 1533–March 24, 1603) was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from November 17, 1558 until her death. ... There have been three monarchs named Mary I: Mary I of England a. ...

Christ's was the word that spake it.

He took the bread and brake it;

And what his word did make it

That I believe and take it.

Accordingly, the quatrain is interpreted as agreeing with some form of physical presence, a denial of which would have resulted in her execution.

Eastern Orthodox

Since the Eucharist prefigures the ultimate union with God to which Orthodox Christians aspire (see theosis), it has a central role in Eastern Orthodox theology, which teaches, as does Roman Catholicism, that the Divine Liturgy mystically brings the congregation into the presence of both the original Last Supper and the angelic worship in Heaven. The worship is centered around the union of the earthly Liturgy with the heavenly Liturgy, of the sacrifice of Christ on the Cross with the bloodless sacrifice on the altar, and of Christ's Body and Blood with the faithful, both individually and corporately, as the Body of Christ (a term which refers both to the Eucharist and the Church). ... In Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic theology, theosis, meaning divinization (or woodenly, deification or, to become god), is the call to man to become holy and seek union with God, beginning in this life and later consummated in the resurrection. ... The Divine Liturgy is the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern-Rite Catholic eucharistic service. ...

The bread and wine, referred to as "gifts", are believed, as in the Roman Catholic tradition, to become literally the Body and Blood of Christ by the grace of the Holy Spirit. Less theological emphasis is placed on identifying a moment of consecration, e.g., when the words of institution are spoken. Eastern Orthodox typically eschew Aristotelian philosophy, a philosophy tending to categorize and organize, and prefer a Neo-Platonic philosophy, tending to reconcile distinctions. The language of "transubstantiation" is therefore thought too precise, and is avoided in favor of the language of "participation". St. Augustine, [8] (d. 430) a Platonist Christian theologian, helped the Church to develop a unifying synthetic theology, [9] categorizing many theological concepts yet seeking also their harmonious interrelationship, and of communion stating that "[t]he entire Church observes the tradition" [10], i.e. participates in it, and that the "sacrifice ... is now offered to God by Christians throughout the whole world". The Holy Spirit, or Holy Ghost, in Trinitarian Christian belief, is God, the third Person of the Holy Trinity; the word Spirit commonly translates the Greek New Testament word pneuma (Greek: πνεύμα). // Christian views of the Holy Spirit In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit is one person of the Trinity, co... Aristotle (sculpture) Aristotle (Greek: Αριστοτέλης Aristotelēs; 384 BC – March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. ... Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) was a school of philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century A.D. Though based on the teachings of Plato and Platonists, it interpreted Plato in many new ways, so that Neoplatonism was quite different from what Plato had written, though many Neoplatonists would preffer... In general, the term Saint refers to someone who is exceptionally virtuous and holy. ... St. ... Events Saint Patrick reaches Ireland on his missionary expedition. ...

Some Eastern Orthodox theologians and scholars do accept the term "transubstantiation", e.g. based on terms found in the Orthodox Confession of 1640 [11] made by Peter Mogila (Mohyla), metropolitan of Kiev, to refute a Calvinist declaration by another Orthodox, Cyril Lucaris [12]. Events December 1 - Portugal regains its independence from Spain and João IV of Portugal becomes king. ... Peter Mogila Peter Mogila (Ukrainian: Петро Могила, Petro Mohyla; Romanian: Petru Movilă; Russian: Pyotr Mogila; December 21 1596 â€“ December 22, 1646) was a Metropolitan of Kiev and Galicia from 1633 until his death. ... A monument to St. ... In an unadorned church, the 17th century congregation stands to hear the sermon. ...

Protestant

The various Protestant traditions hold differing views of the Eucharist. However, the views have certain common aspects and differ on a "sliding scale." All Protestants reject, at least officially, the doctrine of transubstantiation -- namely, that the substance of the bread and wine is changed into the flesh and blood of Jesus Christ. In other words, all Protestants agree that the bread continues to be bread and the wine continues to be wine. Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... The Eucharist is either the celebration of the Christian sacrament commemorating Christ’s Last Supper, or the consecrated bread and wine of this sacrament. ...

Protestants disagree over to whom and in what mode Jesus Christ is present those who receive the bread and wine. Some teach that Christ is physically present to all who receive the sacrament, some teach that Christ's whole person (body and spirit) is made present only to those who receive the sacrament with faith, others teach that Christ is only present in spirit or not present at all and that the sacrament is simply an occasion for remembering him and his work.

Finally, it is important to note that some Baptists, for example, agree with the Reformed/Presybterian/Methodist understanding of the eucharist, and vice-versa. In other words, there is a great diversity of views between communions and also within some communions.

Lutheran

Lutheran Eucharist includes The Real Presence of Christ's Body and Blood "in, with and under" the Bread and wine of the Lord's Supper. The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ...

Reformed/Presbyterian/Methodism

Reformed and Presbyterian churches do not teach that the bread and wine are transformed, but that those who receive the elements with faith are lifted by the power of the Holy Spirit into the presence of Jesus Christ, so that not only his spirit but also his true body and true blood are substantially, essentially, and really communicated to them. Many Reformed Churches officially follow Calvin's doctrine of the eucharist, which teaches that the elect experience union with the incarnate Christ when they partake of the sacrament, but in practice, the views of his contemporary Zwingli are often held, seeing the sacrament as more akin to a visual aid. The Reformed churches are a group of Protestant denominations historically related by a similar Zwinglian or Calvinist system of doctrine but organisationally independent. ... Presbyterianism is a form of church government, practiced by many (although not all) of those Protestant churches (known as Reformed churches), which historically subscribed to the teachings of John Calvin. ... The Methodist movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity. ... John Calvin (July 10, 1509 – May 27, 1564) was a prominent Christian theologian during the Protestant Reformation and is the namesake of the system of Christian theology called Calvinism. ... Zwinglis Successor Zwinglis successor, Heinrich Bullinger, was elected on December 9, 1531, to be the pastor of the Great Minster at Zürich, a position which he held to the end of his life (1575). ...

Although Methodism traditionally repudiates Reformed/Presbyterian teaching on predestination, Methodist churches essentially agree with the Reformed and Presbyterian doctrines of the eucharist. Transubstantiation is rejected, as is a rigid memorialism. Methodists generally refer to the Eucharist as a means of grace whereby those who partake experience the presence and the grace of Christ. While Real Presence is generally affirmed, Methodists have preferred to allow the specific details of the sacrament as a mystery. Typically celebrated as a means of grace meant to aid in the process of sanctification and the journey to Christian Perfection, it is also celebrated recognizing that God's prevenient grace may bring a person to conversion or even salvation through the sacrament. The Means of Grace in Christian theology are those things (the means) through which God gives His grace. ... Real Presence is the Christian belief and doctrine that Jesus the Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist or Holy Communion. ... The Means of Grace in Christian theology are those things (the means) through which God gives His grace. ... Sanctification or in its verb form, sanctify, literally means to set apart for special use or purpose, that is, to make holy or sacred (compare Latin sanctus holy). Therefore sanctification refers to the state or process of being set apart, i. ... Christian Perfection is a controversial Christian doctrine which maintains that after conversion but before death a Christians soul may be cleansed from the stain of original sin. ... Prevenient Grace is a Christian theological concept embraced primarily by Arminian Christians who are influenced by the theology of John Wesley and who are part of the Methodist movement. ... Religious conversion is the adoption of new religious beliefs that differ from the converts previous beliefs; in some cultures (e. ... // General Definition In Christian theology, justification is Gods act making a sinner righteous before Him by His grace, received through the faith given to the person by God, for Christs sake, because of his life, death, and resurrection. ...

Baptists, non-denomination, etc.

Most other Protestant Churches see the Lord's Supper as a commemoration of the sacrifice of Jesus, in which the physical elements have a purely symbolic and memorial value, reminding partakers of his salvific work. The supporters of the minimalist viewpoint usually hold that the Lord's Supper is a church ordinance, and shy away from the term sacrament¹. Proponents view the ordinance as a remembrance of the suffering and death of Jesus, instituted by Jesus as a perpetual memorial until His return. Transubstantiation, consubstantiation, and "means of grace" views are rejected. The institution of Lord's supper from the four gospels is emphasized, as well as the Apostle Paul's account in 1 Corinthians 11:23-27. This viewpoint is most often historically associated with the Anabaptists of the Radical Reformation (i.e., Conrad Grebel, Felix Manz), Huldrych Zwingli, and the English Baptists. Nevertheless, supporters of the doctrine of the Lord's supper as a memorial believe their position to be historically connected to the institution of Jesus and His apostles, and the practice of the apostolic church. Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... A sacrament is a Christian rite that mediates divine grace. ... // Jesus, or Jesus of Nazareth, also known as Jesus Christ, is Christianitys central figure, both as Messiah and, for most Christians, as God incarnate. ... The prophecies of a Second Coming are various and span across many religions and cultures. ... Transubstantiation is the belief held by many Christian denominations that the Eucharistic elements of bread and wine are changed into the body and blood of Jesus during Consecration. ... Consubstantiation is a theory which (like the competing theory of transubstantiation, with which it is often contrasted) attempts to describe the nature of the Christian Eucharist in terms of philosophical metaphysics. ... A 19th century picture of Paul of Tarsus Paul of Tarsus (originally Saul of Tarsus) or Saint Paul the Apostle (fl. ... Anabaptists (Greek ana+baptizo re-baptizers, German: Wiedertäufer) are Christians of the so-called radical wing of the Protestant Reformation. ... Conrad Grebel (ca. ... Felix Manz (ca. ... Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. ...

Summary of contrasting views on metaphysical aspects of the eucharist

Becuase Jesus Christ is a person, theologies regarding the eucharist involve consideration of the way in which the communicant's personal relationship with God is fed through this mystical meal. However, debates over eucharistic theology in the West have centered not on the personal aspects of Christ's presence but on the metaphysical -- and the opposing views are summarized below.

Main article: Real Presence

• Transubstantiation – the substance (fundamental reality) of the bread and wine is transformed in a way beyond human comprehension into that of the Body, Blood, Soul, and Divinity of Christ, but the accidents (physical traits, including chemical) of the bread and wine remain; this view is held by the Roman Catholic Church and many Anglicans, especially Anglo-Catholic Anglicans.
• Objective reality, but pious silence about technicalities - the view of all the ancient Churches of the East, whether Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, perhaps most Anglicans, or of Nestorian tradition, which, while agreeing with the Roman Catholic belief that the sacrament is not bread and wine, but really the body and blood of Christ, have not adopted the "substance" and "accidents" terminology, preferring not to scrutinize the technicalities of the transformation.
• Consubstantiation - the body and blood of Jesus Christ are substantially present alongside the substance of the bread and wine, which remain. Some Anglicans do hold this view. (This view is often inaccurately attributed to the Lutheran Church.)
• Pious silence even about the objective reality - the Lutheran view and shared by many Anglicans.
• Real Spiritual presence - not only the spirit, but also the true body and blood of Jesus Christ (hence "real") are received by the sovereign, mysterious, and miraculous power of the Holy Spirit (hence "spiritual"), but only by those partakers who have faith. This view approaches the "pious silence" view in its unwillingness to specify how the Holy Spirit makes Christ present, but positively excludes not just symbolism but also trans- and con-substantiation. It is also known as "mystical presence," and is held by most Reformed Christians, such as Presbyterians, as well as Methodists and some Anglicans, particularly Reformed Anglicans. See Westminster Confession of Faith, ch. 19.
• Symbolism - the bread and wine are symbolic of the body and blood of Jesus Christ, and in partaking of the elements the believer commemorates the sacrificial death of Christ. This view is also known as "memorialism" and Zwinglianism after Ulrich Zwingliand is held by several Protestant denominations, including most Baptists. This view is also that of Jehovah's Witnesses (in this case, they also believe that eating/drinking it is restricted to a select few, but most participate to the yearly memorendum).
• Suspension - the partaking of the bread and wine was not intended to be a perpetual ordinance, and/or was not to be taken as a religious rite or ceremony (also known as adeipnonism, meaning "no supper" or "no meal"); this is the view of Quakers, The Salvation Army, as well as the "ultra-dispensational" teaching of E. W. Bullinger, Cornelius R. Stam and others

Real Presence is the Christian belief and doctrine that Jesus the Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist or Holy Communion. ... The Roman Catholic Church, also called the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian body in the world. ... The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... ... The Vladimir Icon, one of the most venerated of Orthodox Christian icons of Mary. ... The term Oriental Orthodoxy refers to the churches of Eastern Christian traditions that keeps the faith of only the first three ecumenical councils of the undivided Church - the councils of Nicea, Constantinople and Ephesus. ... The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... The Reformed churches are a group of Protestant denominations historically related by a similar Zwinglian or Calvinist system of doctrine but organizationally independent. ... Presbyterianism is part of the Reformed churches family of denominations of Christian Protestantism based on the teachings of John Calvin which traces its institutional roots to the Scottish Reformation, especially as led by John Knox. ... The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (January 1, 1484 – October 10, 1531) was the leader of the Swiss Reformation and founder of the Swiss Reformed Churches. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. ... The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, or Friends, is a religious community founded in England in the 17th century. ... The Salvation Army is a Evangelist Christian denomination, a charity and a social services organization. ... Ethelbert William Bullinger (December 15, 1837 - June 6, 1913) was a Vicar of the Church of England, Biblical scholar, and dispensationalist theologian. ...

Forms of Eucharistic celebration

The Agape feast. The Eucharistic celebration of the early Christians, while centered on the ritual of the bread and wine, also included various other ritual elements, including elements of the Passover seder and of Mediterranean funerary banquets, termed Agape Feasts. Agape is one of the Greek words for love. Such Agapes were widespread, though not universal, in the early Christian world. The Agape Feast was a love feast celebrated in apostolic times on any day, in addition to the Eucharist. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The Seder (pronounced say-der, meaning order in Hebrew) is a special Jewish ceremonial dinner revolving around the story of Exodus. ... Agapē (in Greek written αγάπη; pronounced ah-GAH-peh or AH-gah-peh) is the Greek word for divine, unconditional, self-sacrificing love. ...

This service apparently was a full meal, with each participant bringing their own food, with the meal eaten in a common room. Perhaps predictably enough, it could at times deteriorate into a mere occasion for eating and drinking, or for ostentatious displays by the wealthier members of the community, as was already observed by St. Paul (cf. 1 Cor 11:20-22). Because of such abuses, the Agape gradually fell into disfavor, and after being subjected to various regulations and restrictions, was definitively dropped by the Church between the 6th and 8th centuries.

Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran and Orthodox

Liturgical setting

Celebration of the Eucharist is usually called the Mass in Latin-rite Roman Catholicism, the Divine Liturgy in Eastern Churches, including Eastern Rite Catholics, Holy Communion or the Mass in the Anglican tradition. It usually takes place in a church. The ritual includes Scripture readings, hymns, etc, which may or may not be directly related to the Eucharist. They provide the preparation and context for the central Eucharistic Prayer: the Canon of the Mass or Anaphora. This part is sometimes referred to as the Liturgy of the Eucharist (in a narrower sense), distinguishing it from the Liturgy of the Word, which precedes it and sometimes also from the Communion Liturgy that follows. Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI) presiding at the 2005 Easter Vigil Mass in place of the dying Pope John Paul II. Mass is the term used of the celebration of the Eucharist in the Latin rites of the Roman Catholic Church. ... Latin Rite, in the singular and accompanied, in English, by the definite article, is the term used in documents of the Catholic Church, including the opening canon of the 1983 Code of Canon Law, to refer to the particular Churches within it that developed in the area of western Europe... The Roman Catholic Church, also called the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian body in the world. ... The Divine Liturgy is the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern-Rite Catholic eucharistic service. ... The term Eastern Rites may refer to the liturgical rites used by many ancient Christian Churches of Eastern Europe and the Middle East that, while being part of the Roman Catholic Church, are distinct from the Latin Rite or Western Church. ... The Eucharist is either the Christian sacrament of consecrated bread and wine or the ritual surrounding it. ... Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI) presiding at the 2005 Easter Vigil Mass in place of the dying Pope John Paul II. Mass is the term used of the celebration of the Eucharist in the Latin rites of the Roman Catholic Church. ... The term Anglican describes those people and churches following the religious traditions of the Church of England, especially following the Reformation. ... A church building is a building used in Christian worship. ... Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (now Pope Benedict XVI) presiding at the 2005 Easter Vigil Mass in place of the dying Pope John Paul II. Mass is the term used of the celebration of the Eucharist in the Latin rites of the Roman Catholic Church. ... In the Eastern Christian liturgy, the anaphora is that part of the Liturgy having to do specifically with the consecration and offering of the Eucharist, as opposed to scripture readings, etc. ...

In the Catholic and Anglican traditions, a wedding service may be joined to celebration of the Eucharist, as may other sacraments. Nubian wedding with some international modern touches, near Aswan, Egypt A wedding is a civil or religious ceremony at which the beginning of a marriage is celebrated. ...

Participants

These include one or more priests, often assisted by deacons and other ministers, wearing the vestments of their rank. (Ethiopian tradition requires a minimum of three priests and two deacons.) Catholic and Anglican vestments are similar, if not identical. Eastern Churches vary more from both from the Western tradition and among themselves in both the appearance and symbolism of their vestments [13]. There is usually a congregation, but in Catholicism and Anglicanism, a priest may for a serious reason celebrate the Eucharist alone. Roman Catholic priest LCDR Allen R. Kuss (USN) aboard USS Enterprise A priest or priestess is a holy man or woman who takes an officiating role in worship of any religion, with the distinguishing characteristic of offering sacrifices. ... Deacon is a role in the Christian Church which is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. ... Vestments are liturgical garments and articles associated primarily with the Christian religions, especially the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican Churches. ... A congregation is the group of members who make up a local Christian church or Jewish synagogue (or those who are present at a service thereat), as opposed to the building itself. ...

Materials and objects

There is typically an altar, on which the bread and wine are set for consecration, usually in a chalice for the wine and a paten or diskos for the bread, although a plate or basket is sometimes used. Christian tradition requires that the wine be true wine made from grapes, and that the bread be made from wheat. Western and Armenian Churches, use unleavened bread, in imitation of the matzoh of a Passover seder. It is usually round in shape and is often referred to in the West as the "host" (from Latin "hostia", meaning "victim"). In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, red wine and small round loaves of leavened wheat bread (Prosphora) are used; these are prepared before the Divine Liturgy in a separate ceremony called the Liturgy of Preparation. Picture of an altar from the Meyer Encyclopaedia An altar, (Hebrew mizbeah, from a word meaning to slay) is any structure on which sacrifices known as the korbanot as well as incense offerings are offered for religious purposes. ... Russian chalice A chalice (from Latin calix, cup) is a goblet, intended to hold just drink. ... Matza (also Matzoh, Matzah, Matzo, Hebrew מַצָּה maṣṣā), an unleavened bread, is the official food of Passover. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The Seder (pronounced say-der, meaning order in Hebrew) is a special Jewish ceremonial dinner revolving around the story of Exodus. ... A Prosphora (Greek Προσφωρα, Offering) is a small loaf of bread used in Orthodox Christian ritual. ... The Liturgy of Preparation, also Prothesis (Greek Προθησις a setting forth) or Proskomedia, is the name given in the Eastern Orthodox Church to the act of preparing the bread and wine for the Eucharist. ...

Vessels used in the West include one or more of each of the following: a chalice for the wine, a paten for the main host or hosts, a ciborium for smaller hosts, all placed on a corporal, a white cloth spread on the altar to prevent particles of consecrated hosts from being scattered. In addition, cruets contain water and wine for placing in the chalice. The Roman Missal gives the text of the prayers and rubrics of the Mass. Russian chalice A chalice (from Latin calix, cup) is a goblet, intended to hold just drink. ... A Ciborium is a container, used in Roman Catholic, Anglican, and related Churches rituals to store Holy Communion. ... The Roman Missal is the liturgical book that contains the texts and rubrics for the celebration of the Roman rite of Mass. ...

Byzantine churches have, as well as the Holy Table (the main altar in the center of the Sanctuary), a Table of Oblation where the Liturgy of Preparation is celebrated. [14]. The bread is placed on a diskos, and the wine in a chalice. For part of the Liturgy, the diskos and chalice are covered with individual veils, and with a third veil (the Aer) large enough to cover both. A triangular-bladed knife called the Spear is used to cut the bread, and a small spoon is used to give the Eucharist to the faithful. Sanctuary has multiple meanings. ... The Liturgy of Preparation, also Prothesis (Greek Προθησις a setting forth) or Proskomedia, is the name given in the Eastern Orthodox Church to the act of preparing the bread and wine for the Eucharist. ...

Ritual

The bread and wine are brought to the altar, often in a formal procession. After various prayers, depending on the particular tradition, there is usually a prayer that the bread and wine be changed into the Body and Blood of Jesus. After the consecration, a term often used is Blessed Sacrament of the Altar. Great care is taken not to mishandle or drop any element.

Communion is administered by the priest(s), assisted if necessary by extraordinary ministers of Holy Communion, either directly in the communicant’s mouth or by placing the host in the hand. If Communion is given "under both kinds", the Western practice is either to dip the host in the consecrated wine before placing it in the mouth or for the communicant to drink directly from the chalice, the lip of which is wiped with a cloth after each person receives. Byzantine tradition is to use a spoon to give the consecrated wine and leavened bread together. Drinking from the chalice by means of a metal tube is also envisaged but very rarely used.

Protestant clergy sometimes offer bread from a basket or distribute individual cups and bread (sometimes prepackaged) for the congregation to consume simultaneously. Bread and a common cup may also be passed among the congregation, with each eating or drinking as they receive it. Individual cups used are collected afterwards, if reusable; but may not be collected if disposable.

In Eastern Orthodox practice, all consecrated materials are generally consumed by the Deacon at the end of the Liturgy, unless specially reserved for the Liturgy of Presanctified Gifts during Great Lent. In Catholic and Anglican practice, consecrated hosts not consumed (but not consecrated wine) are reserved, usually in a tabernacle, for later use. A priest or deacon or a specially appointed lay person may administer them to the sick or housebound or to patients in hospital. Deacon is a role in the Christian Church which is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. ... The Divine Liturgy is the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern-Rite Catholic eucharistic service. ... Great Lent is the greatest fasting period in the church year in Eastern Christianity, which prepares Christians for the greatest feast of the church year, Easter (or Holy Pasch). Although it is in many ways similar to Lent in Western Christianity, there are important differences in the timing of Lent... For the Feast of Tabernacles, see Sukkot. ...

The vessels used for the Eucharist are carefully cleansed at the end of the service, a process known as the ablutions. The water used for this purpose, if not drunk, is poured into a special basin called the sacrarium or piscina, directly connected to the ground, not to a drain, out of respect for any minute particles of the Eucharist that may remain. Ablutions in the most liturgical denominations, such as The Episcopal Church, refers to a ritual cleansing of the chalice and paten used in the Eucharist after all have taken Communion. ... A Sacrarium is a special basin that is connected by a pipe directly to the ground. ...

Reformed/Presbyterian

Among Presbyterians, the Directory for the Public Worship of God is a guide, and generally describes the consensus of practice. The Directory instructs that the "supper of the Lord is frequently to be celebrated". However, "where this sacrament cannot with convenience be freqently administered" the sabbath previous (the Sunday beforehand) or somewhere in the intervening week, there must be a public warning to the congregation to prepare, and to use every public and private means to make themselves ready for the Lord's day, and for the Lord's table.

The custom arose especially in the Presbyterian churches, despite the DPW's urging of "frequent" observance, to avoid communion except for an annual communion season - which in the churches that still practice it, are festivals of urgent preaching, fasting and prayer, culminating in the preparatory service on the preceding night, when communion tokens are distributed. Generally the practice has been gradually abandoned in favor of more frequent communion. The continental Reformed never practiced it.

Although some Reformed churches have a fixed altar with pulpit and lectern to the sides of the sanctuary, many have a dominating pulpit in the center of the sanctuary below which is a movable table. On sabbaths or at other times of worship when the eucharist is not celebrated the table is often used to place the collection plates for tithes and offerings, or an arrangement of flowers is placed on it. Typically, the table is inscribed with Christ's words "IN REMEMBRANCE OF ME."

Traditionally, the pastor "fences the table" before consecrating the elements, inviting those who meet certain conditions (often, baptized and communicant members in a "Reformed or evangelical" church), to participate and warning those who do not meet those conditions. A simple prayer of thanksgiving is said. The bread is then distributed by the elders of the church to the congregation, who are usually seated in the pews. In this respect the Reformed churches believe to be following the example of Christ himself who distributed the bread at the Last Supper to his disciples, seated around him. Often, the communicants are asked to "retain the elements until all have been served." After everyone has taken a piece of bread, the elders return the left-overs to the communion table, and take a seat. At this point, the pastor announces "take, eat" or "the body of Christ," and the congregation eats together. The same process is then repeated with wine (or grape juice) being distributed in small individual glasses in trays throughout the pews by the elders. However, Reformed pastors often omit a second prayer of thanksgiving.

After the eucharist, a hymn is sung (again, intending to follow the example of Christ and the disciples), and the congregation is dismissed with a benediction.

Minimalist

The elements of the Lord's supper are most commonly unleavened bread and wine². In traditions in which temperance movements have had strong influence, grape juice is substituted for the wine. The term "grape juice" will frequently not be used in services; instead terms such as "unfermented wine," "wine," or simply "the cup" will be used. Teachers from such movements often assert that oinon, the Greek word used in the original New Testament to mean wine, may mean either fermented or unfermented wine. However, prior to the temperance movement, this claim was unknown. In a few Holiness bodies, and by the Mormons water is substituted for the wine. The Temperance Movement (see definition of temperance) was a movement in support of total abstinence from alcohol during the 19th and early 20th centuries. ... The holiness movement is composed of people who believe and propagate the belief that the carnal nature of man can be cleansed through faith and by the power of the Holy Spirit if one has had his sins forgiven through faith in Jesus. ... The term Mormon is a colloquial name, most-often used to refer to members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). ...

The frequency with which the Lord's supper is observed is often a matter of tradition rather than doctrine for most groups. It may be observed annually, bi-annually, quarterly, monthly, or weekly. The Churches of Christ hold the position that the Lord's supper must be observed on the first day of each week. Jehovah's Witnesses celebrate it annually, because they consider it the "Lord's Memory" and consider the Lord to be their passover, beliefs they base on 1 Cor. 5:7; 11:23-25. The earliest tradition seems to be that communion was frequent. E.g., "[H]ear the Savior: '...I supply daily the Drink of immortality'" St. Clement of Alexandria [15] (d. 217) (Jurgens §436a). The Churches of Christ are a body of autonomous Christian congregations. ... See also: Second Epistle to the Corinthians and Third Epistle to the Corinthians The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. ... In general, the term Saint refers to someone who is exceptionally virtuous and holy. ... Clement of Alexandria (Titus Flavius Clemens), was the first member of the Church of Alexandria to be more than a name, and one of its most distinguished teachers. ... Events Macrinus becomes Roman Emperor on the death of Caracalla. ...

Individual pre-communion preparation

Different traditions require varying degrees of individual preparation before receiving the Eucharist. This may be a period of fasting, prayer, and/or repentance and confession. See Eucharistic discipline. Fasting is the act of willingly (and generally briefly) abstaining from all food and in some cases drink, sexual intercourse, or any sexual desire (including masturbation), or in other cases from certain types or groups of food (e. ... Prayer is an effort to communicate with God, or to some deity or deities, or another form of spiritual entity, or otherwise, either to offer praise, to make a request, or simply to express ones thoughts and emotions. ... Repentance is the feeling and act in which one recognizes and tries to right a wrong, or gain forgiveness from someone that they wronged. ... In criminal proceedings, a confession is a document in which a suspect admits having committed a crime. ... Eucharistic discipline is the term applied to the regulations and practices associated with an individual preparing for the reception of the Eucharist. ...

Catholic

Sufficient spiritual preparation must be made by each Catholic prior to receiving Holy Communion. A Catholic guilty of mortal sin should first make a sacramental confession: otherwise that person commits a sacrilege. Also, Catholics must abstain from food and drink (except water and medicine) before participating. Ritual laws differ on the length of the fast; Latin-rite Roman Catholics are expected to fast one hour before receiving. Finally, of course, one must have a true belief in the Real Presence of Christ in the Eucharist. According to the beliefs of Catholicism, a mortal sin, as distinct from a venial sin, must meet all of the following conditions: its subject must be ‘grave matter’; it must be committed with full knowledge, both of the sin and of the gravity of the offense; it must be committed... In criminal proceedings, a confession is a document in which a suspect admits having committed a crime. ...

Orthodox

Orthodox Christians are required to fast from all food and drink before receiving the Eucharist. This fast typically begins from Vespers or sunset the night before, midnight the night before, or from the time that the individual wakes up in the morning, depending on local tradition. Monastic practice can be even more strict, requiring a strict fast for the previous day as well. Fasting regulations are often relaxed for pregnant women, the ill, and young children. Vespers is the evening prayer service in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox liturgies of the canonical hours. ... A red sunset panorama A composite image showing the terminator dividing night from day, running across Europe and Africa. ... Monasticism (from Greek: monachos—a solitary person) is the religious practice of renouncing all worldly pursuits in order to fully devote ones life to spiritual work. ... A pregnant woman Pregnancy is the process by which a mammalian female carries a live offspring from conception until it develops to the point where the offspring is capable of living outside the womb. ...

Orthodox Christians typically receive the Sacrament of Confession before receiving the Eucharist. Those receiving the Eucharist infrequently will usually go to confession before each time, while those receiving on a regular basis will go to confession more frequently—typically once a month. However, for those who are either mentally incapable of recognizing or recalling their sins, or who are mentally or physically incapable of communicating their sins to a priest, this requirement is dispensed with, just as it is for very young children. In criminal proceedings, a confession is a document in which a suspect admits having committed a crime. ... Sin has been a term most usually used in a religious context, and today describes any lack of conformity to the will of God; especially, any willful disregard for the norms revealed by God is a sin. ... Roman Catholic priest LCDR Allen R. Kuss (USN) aboard USS Enterprise A priest or priestess is a holy man or woman who takes an officiating role in worship of any religion, with the distinguishing characteristic of offering sacrifices. ...

There is also a prayer rule that must be completed before receiving. The details of this rule differ between traditions, and may also vary depending on the advice of an individual's spiritual advisor or elder. For example, the moderately strict rule that is followed in the Russian tradition requires three canons with an akathist to be read the evening before, and a set of prayers in the morning consisting of three introductory Psalms, several troparia, Psalm 50, a canon, and fifteen specific preparatory prayers. In some places, it is customary to read the morning portion in the church before the start of Divine Liturgy. A final prayer is said during the Liturgy immediately before Communion is distributed. Psalms (Tehilim תהילים, in Hebrew) is a book of the Hebrew Bible or Tanakh, and of the Old Testament of the Christian Bible. ... Troparion (also tropar, plural: troparia) in Byzantine music and in the religious music of Eastern Orthodoxy is a short hymn of one stanza, or one of a series of stanzas (this may carry the further connotation of a hymn interpolated between psalm verses). ... This article should be transwikied to Wikibooks or Wikisource Psalms 51 1 Have mercy upon me, O God, according to thy lovingkindness: according unto the multitude of thy tender mercies blot out my transgressions. ... The Divine Liturgy is the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern-Rite Catholic eucharistic service. ...

Anglican

In the Anglican/Episcopal Churches it was for several centuries the custom for the priest to read an exhortation to the congregation telling them in advance of a coming celebration; during the celebration itself a further exhortation was read. The priest exhorted those coming to the sacrament was available to those who "Who truly repent of their sins, are in love and charity with their neighbours, and intend to lead a new life, following the commandments of God." Before receiving the sacrament, the communicant was to make his or her name known to the priest who was going to preside.

In the past 150 years or so, this pattern has largely fallen into disuse. Preparation for Communion for the latter half of the 19th century until nearly the end of the 20th century included fasting before Communion, either from midnight the day before, or upon waking. Many Anglicans/Episcopalians throughout the world still follow the custom of fasting. Before the 1970's, many Anglo-Catholics routinely made their private confession to the priest usually on Saturday afternoons, as the ancient exhortations encouraged private confession before Communion.)

Nowadays, preparation is usually up to the individual. Many individuals, families, small groups prepare for the Sunday Eucharist by studying the scriptural lessons appointed in the Lectionary for the next Sunday, Holy Day, or Feast or Week day they will be receiving. Many will still avail themselves of sacramental confession.

However, most people understand the first half of the Eucharist as the preparation for the reception of the body and blood of Christ. The lessons from the Bible, the Sermon, Creed, General Confession, prayers, and the Peace before the priest who in the name of the Church, offers to God the Great Thanksgiving for the consecration of the Gifts. All this is a preparation, though clergy and lay people still admonish each other to be at peace with each other and to come expectantly to the throne of grace.

Lutheran

Lutherans believe that those contemplating reception of the Sacrament need first, in conformity with I Corinthians 11, to "discern the Body;" i.e., to recognize that what one is receiving is in fact the very physical being of Jesus Christ. Recognizing that fact, traditional Lutheranism encourages examination of the conscience in light of the Ten Commandments, not for the absence of guilt (which would indicate impenitence based upon a lack of honesty) but precisely for the ways in which one is, in fact, culpable before God.

Those who then approach the Table in faith, desiring God's forgiveness, receive, Lutherans believe, not only that forgiveness, but a personal union with Christ more intimate than is possible in any other way between two human beings; those who approach in unbelief also receive Christ's body and blood, but to their judgment for the dishonor they do them.

Presbyterian & Reformed

Among Presbyterians, there is neither requirement, nor prohibition, of any of the traditional understandings of what it means to "make ready": it is left to local custom. In modern times, there is no uniform practice of earlier patterns of fasting, public or private prayer, or the preparatory service (Vespers).

However, the Westminster Larger Catechism has rather extensive instructions on how those who "receive the sacrament of the Lord's supper are, before they come, to prepare themselves . . . ." by extensive self-examination.

Therefore, the Presbyterian Church in America's Directory for the Worship of God advises that a week's notice be given to the congregation prior to the administration of the Lord's supper.

Finally, it should be noted that the Westminster Larger Catechism also provides extensive instructions on "what is required of them that receive the sacrament of the Lord's supper" during and after its administration. See Westminster Larger Catechism, Q. 174 and 175.

Methodist

In Methodism, the table is made available to all people, and none are turned away. This practice is referred to as keeping an "Open table". The general invitation is typically made in the ritual, "Christ our Lord invites to his table all who love him, who earnestly repent of their sin and seek to live in peace with one another." All are free to commune at the appropriate time. Open communion refers to Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive communion (also called the Eucharist or the Lords Supper). ...

Minimalist

Some minimalist churches, such as the Disciples of Christ-Churches of Christ allow lay consecration of the elements. Other churches, such as Plymouth Brethren churches, do not recognize the concepts of consecrating or presiding over the elements. The Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement (or simply, Restoration Movement) is a religious reform movement born in the early 1800s in the United States. ... In religious organizations, the laity comprises all lay persons collectively. ... The Plymouth Brethren is a Christian religious movement that began in Ireland and England in the late 1820s and made prominent by John Nelson Darby, Dr. Edward Cronin, John Bellett, and Francis Hutchinson who felt that the established Church had become too involved with the secular state and abandoned many...

Open and closed communion

Problems of Terminology

Terminology is somewhat difficult when discussing the issue of open and closed communion. Recently, some in the Episcopal Church (USA), which is currently under discipline by the wider Anglican Communion, have used the term "open communion" to mean a practice which makes not only no distinction between Christians of various denominations, but also no distinction between Christians and non-Christians. Traditionally, however, the term "open communion" has been understood to mean allowing Christians of other denominations to participate in a celebration of the eucharist. In some churches, all Christians meeting certain criteria of belief are invited, in others the same criteria are applied but communicants must be screened by the pastor and/or elders before being admitted. In other churches, the criteria are not as personal but more corporate -- in other words, whether the individual is a member of a certain church or was baptized. Because Christian churches rarely practice completely closed communion (even Roman Catholics and Eastern Orthodox make allowances in exceptional circumstances) or the kind of "open communion" being advocated by some radical episcopalians, it is perhaps more useful to carefully consider the precise conditions of admission to communion (personal belief, membership in a particular church, membership in a particular kind of church, membership in any Christian church, having been baptized, or a combination of those), the way those conditions are administered (a general announcement before the service, a general invitation before the consecration, a screening by the pastor/elders, or some other personal evaluation by the pastor), and the theological basis for those terms (what communion means, the mode of Christ's presence, the nature of the "true" church), rather than relying exclusively on the terms "open" and "closed" communion -- which in fact do not adequately account for the diversity in practice among Christian churches.

General Overview

Christian denominations differ in their understanding of whether they may receive the Eucharist together with those not in full communion with them. The ancient Churches such as the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox exclude it in normal circumstances, though they may allow exceptions, e.g. for non-members in danger of death who share their faith in the reality of the Eucharist and are unable to have access to a minister of their own religion. Other Churches that teach the Real Presence of Christ in the Sacrament – such as conservative Lutheran Churches like the Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod or the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod – tend to do the same. Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament writings of his early followers. ... Full communion is completeness of that relationship between Christian individuals and groups which is known as communion. ... The Roman Catholic Church, also called the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian body in the world. ... ... Real Presence is the Christian belief and doctrine that Jesus the Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist or Holy Communion. ... Christ is the English representation of the Greek word Χριστός (transliterated as Khristós), which means anointed. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... Official cross symbol of the Missouri Synod The Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod (LCMS) is the second-largest Lutheran body in the United States. ... Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) is a United States religious denomination belonging to the Lutheran tradition within Christianity. ...

Theological reasons sometimes given for this restriction, referred to, especially by those who take a different view, as closed communion include: Closed communion is the practice of restricting the serving of the elements of communion (also called Eucharist, The Lords Supper) to those who are members of a particular church, denomination, sect, or congregation. ...

• Church membership is essentially defined as participation in its Eucharist

• participating in the sacraments of a Church is understood as public avowal of its teachings and of unity with its members, which is a falsehood on the part of non-members

• every effort must be made to ensure that the warning of 1 Corinthians 11:27 is heeded:: "Therefore, whoever eats the bread or drinks the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner will be guilty of sinning against the body and blood of the Lord"

• it is wrong to expose the elements of the Eucharist to being treated as not having the sacred character that is theirs because of being the body and blood of Christ

The National Catholic Reporter[16] of 27 May 2005 informed that Cardinal Walter Kasper, President of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, was asked on 19 May 2005 whether Catholics should invite others to share in the Catholic Eucharist, so as to foster Christian unity. He responded that, at a minimum, to invite a non-Catholic to receive communion, "we must share the same faith in the Eucharist. At the end of the Eucharistic prayer, the community answers 'Amen', meaning, 'I agree.' Everyone has to ask, 'Can I really say 'Amen' to what is said and done according to Catholic understanding?' These restrictions are not external, disciplinary positions of the Church. They are an explication of this 'Amen'. Otherwise it would be dishonest to go to communion. I would say the same to many Catholics. Does your life correspond to what this Eucharist is? You have to reflect about this, do penance and conversion, and so on. We do not invite all Catholics, either. It's a very hard question of conscience." May 27 is the 147th day (148th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar, with 218 days remaining. ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... May 19 is the 139th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (140th in leap years). ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Citing the final canon of the Code of Canon Law, Cardinal Kasper also pointed out that the supreme law of the church is the salvation of souls. A person must be treated as an individual and not simply as an example of some general category. Thus under some circumstances, Catholic pastors are permitted to administer the sacraments, including the Eucharist, to non-Catholics. "This seems to me an appropriate response to the contemporary situation," he said. "It allows bishops to reach prudent pastoral decisions in particular instances. … Spiritual questions cannot be regulated by canon law alone. We need pastoral wisdom and the discernment of spirits."

Closed communion was the universal practice of the early Church. The famed apologist St. Justin Martyr, ca. A.D. 150, wrote: "No one else is permitted to partake of it, except one who believes our teaching to be true...." For the first several hundred years of Church history, non-members were forbidden even to be present at the sacramental ritual; visitors and catechumens (those still undergoing instruction) were dismissed halfway through the liturgy, after the Bible readings and sermon but before the Eucharistic rite. The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom, used in the Byzantine Churches, still has a formula of dismissal of catechumens (not followed by any action) at this point. Closed communion is the practice of restricting the serving of the elements of communion (also called Eucharist, The Lords Supper) to those who are members of a particular church, denomination, sect, or congregation. ... In general, the term Saint refers to someone who is exceptionally virtuous and holy. ... Saint Justin Martyr (Justin the Martyr) (c. ... For other uses, see number 150. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... The Divine Liturgy is the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern-Rite Catholic eucharistic service. ...

Most Protestant communities, including some Reformed, Evangelical, Methodist, and more-liberal Lutheran (such as the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Church of Sweden) practice open communion. Some open communion communities adhere to a symbolic or spiritual understanding of the Eucharist, so that they have no fear of sacrilege against the literal body and blood of Christ, if someone receives inappropriately. Believing that the benefits of communion are a matter of the individual’s faith, they are unwilling to judge who may or may not be "worthy" to partake, and distribute the elements to all who present themselves, even if known not to be members. However, groups such as the Mennonites or Landmark Baptist Churches, which do not teach the Real Presence, practice closed communion as a symbol of exclusive membership and loyalty to the distinctive doctrines of their fellowship. Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... The Reformed churches are a group of Protestant denominations historically related by a similar Zwinglian or Calvinist system of doctrine but organizationally independent. ... The term evangelical has several distinct meanings: In its original sense, it means belonging or related to the Gospel (Greek: euangelion - good news) of the New Testament. ... The Methodist movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity. ... The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) is a mainline Protestant denomination headquartered in Chicago, Illinois. ... The Church of Sweden, or Svenska kyrkan, is the national church of Sweden. ... Open communion refers to Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive communion (also called the Eucharist or the Lords Supper). ... The Mennonites are a group of Christian Anabaptist denominations named after and influenced by the teachings and tradition of Menno Simons. ... Though numerous churches and some organizations use the terms Landmark and Landmark Baptist in their name, there is no identifiable sub-group of Baptists known as the Landmark Baptist Church. ... Real Presence is the Christian belief and doctrine that Jesus the Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist or Holy Communion. ...

Today, most Lutheran churches allow communion by those who hold to its views on the nature of the sacrament. Since Lutherans hold to the doctrine of the Real Presence, a Roman Catholic could participate in such Lutheran communion (as they also hold to this view), but a Baptist could not (as Baptists consider communion to be symbolic in nature). Traditionally, however, Lutherans have held to the "Galesburg Rule:" "At whose altar one communes, his faith one confesses," and admitted only those in full doctrinal agreement with the celebrating congregation. Real Presence is the Christian belief and doctrine that Jesus the Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist or Holy Communion. ...

The traditional Baptist position favors closed communion³. Some Baptists (for example, General Baptists) and non-denominational groups favor open communion, in which all professed believers are invited to participate. In some Baptist churches, participation is open to those "of like faith and practice" (that is, other Baptists generally), but excluding those of other denominations (for example, Assemblies of God). Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. ... Baptists were first identified by the name General Baptists in 17th century England. ... Open communion refers to Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive communion (also called the Eucharist or the Lords Supper). ... The Assemblies of God is the worlds largest Pentecostal Protestant Christian denomination. ...

In Methodism, the real presence of Christ in the sacrament is affirmed, but left as a mystery, typically unexplained. Methodists hold, however, that the grace of God communicated through the Eucharist is powerful and sustaining as well as (potentially) converting; thus the sacrament is viewed as an evangelical sacrament. Because of this, they practise the "open table", in the hope that the communicant will meet Christ. The Methodist movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity. ... Real Presence is the Christian belief and doctrine that Jesus the Christ is physically present in the bread and wine of the Eucharist or Holy Communion. ...

The Churches of the Anglican Communion have mostly abandoned their former practice of closed communion. The rubrics of the Book of Common Prayer state that no one may take communion until confirmed, but present general practice admits all baptised Christians to communion. The Anglican Communion uses the compass rose as its symbol, signifying its worldwide reach and decentralized nature. ... Rubric can refer to: In typography, rubric refers to a section of red text In academia, rubric is a grading scheme A rubric is also an authoritative rule, an explanatory or introductory commentary, or an established rule, tradition, or custom. ... The Book of Common Prayer[1] is the prayer book of the Church of England and also the name for similar books used in other churches in the Anglican Communion. ... Confirmation is a rite used in many Christian churches. ...

Footnotes

• Note 1: as Anabaptist leader Pilgram Marpeck put it, "The true meaning of communion is mystified and obscured by the word sacrament." Nevertheless as far as his theology goes Marpeck was decidedly more incarnational than many of his Anabaptist peers, and thus closer to the Roman Catholic position than even Zwingli.
• Note 2: e.g., see What is It to Eat and Drink Unworthily, by J. R. Graves
• Note 3: ibid.

Pilgram Marpeck (unk-1556) was an important South German Anabaptist leader in the 16th century. ...

Resources

• Anderson, S. E. The First Communion
• Chemnitz, Martin. The Lord's Supper. J. A. O. Preus, trans. St. Louis: Concordia, 1979. ISBN 0-570-03275-X
• Elert, Werner. Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries. N. E. Nagel, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1966. ISBN 0-570-04270-4
• Felton, Gayle. This Holy Mystery. Nashville: Discipleship Resources, 2005. ISBN 088177457X
• Father Gabriel. Divine Intimacy. Rockford, IL: Tan Books and Publishers, Inc., 1996 reprint ed. ISBN 0895555042
• Grime, J. H. Close Communion and Baptists
• Jurgens, William A. The Faith of the Early Fathers. Collegeville, MN: The Liturgical Press, 1970. ISBN 0814604323
• Kolb, Robert and Timothy J. Wengert, eds. The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2000. (ISBN 0800627407)
• Lefebvre, Gaspar. The Saint Andrew Daily Missal. Reprint. Great Falls, MT: St. Bonaventure Publications, Inc., 1999.
• Macy, Gary. The Banquet’s Wisdom: A Short History of the Theologies of the Lord’s Supper. (2005, ISBN 1878009508)
• McBride, Alfred, O.Praem. Celebrating the Mass. Our Sunday Visitor, 1999.
• Nevin, John Williamson. The Mystical Presence: A Vindication of the Reformed or Calvinistic Doctrine of the Holy Eucharist. 1846; Wipf & Stock reprint, 2000. ISBN 1579103480.
• Oden, Thomas C. Corrective Love: The Power of Communion Discipline. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1995. ISBN 0-570-04803-6
• Sasse, Hermann. This Is My Body: Luther's Contention for the Real Presence in the Sacrament of the Altar. Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001. ISBN 1579107664
• Schmemann, Alexander. The Eucharist. St Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1997. ISBN 0881410187
• Stoffer, Dale R. The Lord's Supper: Believers Church Perspectives
• Stookey, L.H. Eucharist: Christ's Feast with the Church. Nashville: Abingdon, 1993 ISBN 0687120179
• Tissot, The Very Rev. J. The Interior Life. 1916, pp. 347-9.
• Wright, N. T. The Meal Jesus Gave Us

Martin Chemnitz (1522-1586) was an eminent Lutheran theologian, churchman, and confessor, born in Treuenbrietzen, Brandenburg on November 9, 1522, the day before Martin Luther had been born in 1483. ... The Book of Concord was published in 1580 and is a compilation of Lutheran beliefs. ... Alexander Schmemann (1921 - 13 December 1983) was a prominent 20th century Orthodox Christian priest, theologian, and Estonia to Russian émigrés. ...

See also

• Eucharistic theologies contrasted
• Open communion

Ecclesial communities contrasted in relation to Eucharistic theology: // Orthodox Christianity primary theological development from early Church Fathers, esp. ... Open communion refers to Christian churches that allow individuals other than members of that church to receive communion (also called the Eucharist or the Lords Supper). ...

External links

• Do This; Remember Me!, a 21st century hymn text telling the Upper Room story
• The Duty of Constant Communion by John Wesley
• This Holy Mystery: A United Methodist Understanding of Holy Communion
• Do This!: The Eucharist as a Key to Pastoral Care & Church Renewal
• Eucharist in Catholic Encyclopedia
• The Ordinary of the Sacred Liturgy according to the Roman Rite, Missal of 1962
• The Ordinary...according to the Roman Rite, Missal of 1962 alternate source.
• Church Fathers, citations concerning the Holy Eucharist.
• Holy Eucharist from The Orthodox Faith by Fr Thomas Hopko, online essay from the website of the Orthodox Church in America.
• The Priest's Service Book Orthodox Divine Liturgy.
• The Lord's Supper - by Ralph Waldo Emerson, rejecting the Lord's supper as a perpetual rite.
• A Short Introduction to Holy Communion and Celiac Sprue Disease from the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops

• a Baptist viewpoint
• a Church of Christ viewpoint
• a Mennonite viewpoint
• a Reformed (Presbyterian) viewpoint
• The Lord's Supper: Four Views by Joe Slowiaczek
• Four Views of the Lord's Supper - discusses transubstantiation, consubstantiation, spiritual presence, and symbolism (from spiritual presence point of view)
• Pilgram Marpeck's defense of continuing to practice Lord's Supper