Conscription is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority, e.g, Old Testament commentaries use the term to describe the levies of labor used to build the Temple, but it is most often used in the specific sense of government policies that require citizens to serve in their armed forces. It is known by various names — for example, the most recent conscription program in the United States was known colloquially as "the draft". Many nations do not maintain conscription forces, instead relying on a volunteer, or professional military, although many of these countries still reserve the possibility of conscription for wartime and "crises" of supply. The Old Testament or the Hebrew Scriptures constitutes the first major part of the Christian Bible, usually divided into the categories law, history, poetry (or wisdom books) and prophecy. ... A military or miltary force (n. ... The United States has employed conscription (mandatory military service, also called the draft) several times, usually during war but also during the nominal peace of the Cold War. ...

In the United Kingdom, Australia and elsewhere the term conscription is generally used only during wartime. National Service was the term used in peace-time. A shortage of miners in the UK during war-time saw also men conscripted as mine workers - the "Bevin Boys". In Japan during World War II, Japanese women and children were conscripted to work in factories. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a country in western Europe, and member of the Commonwealth of Nations, the G8, the European Union, and NATO. Usually known simply as the United Kingdom, the UK, or (inaccurately) as Great Britain or Britain, the UK has four constituent... Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is the sixth-largest country in the world, the only country to occupy an entire continent, and the largest in the region of Australasia/Oceania. ... National Service was the name given to the system of military conscription employed in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland) between 1949 and 1960. ... A Bevin Boy was a man conscripted to work in the coal mines of the United Kingdom, from December 1943 until the end of World War II. Chosen at random from among the draftees, nearly 48,000 Bevin Boys performed vital but largely unrecognised service in the coal mines, many...

The term "conscription" refers only to the mandatory service, thus those undergoing conscription are known as "conscripts" or "selectee" in the United States (from the Selective Service System or the Selective Service Initiative announced in 2004). SSS redirects to here, you may also want the Social Security System The Selective Service System, in the United States, is a system to register all males over the age of 18 for the purpose of having information available about potential soldiers in case of war. ... Selective Service Initative refers to two bills currently in Congress: HR163 and S89, to reinstate conscription (the draft), claimed to be as response to the continued War on Terrorism, which encompassess the current 2004 Iraq War, Afghanistan, and possible wars with other Islamic countries. ...

"Enlisted" personnel are members of the armed forces who are not commissioned officers. The term is often used to refer only to those who have volunteered for service. In the military, a commissioned officer is a member of the service who derives authority directly from a sovereign power, and as such holds a commission from that power. ...

History

Conscription allowed the French Republic to form the Grande Armee, what Napoleon Bonaparte called "the nation in arms", which successfully battled European professional armies. The French Republic or France (French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. ... La Grande Armée (in English, the Big or Grand Army) is the French military term for the main force in a military campaign. ... Bonaparte as general Napoleon Bonaparte ( 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a general of the French Revolution and was the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from November 11, 1799 to May 18, 1804, then as Emperor of the French (Empereur des Français...

Conscription, particularly when the conscripts are being sent to foreign wars that do not directly affect the security of the nation, has historically been highly politically contentious in democracies. For instance, during World War I, bitter political disputes broke out in Canada (see Conscription Crisis of 1917), Newfoundland, Australia and New Zealand over conscription. Canada also had a political dispute over conscription during World War II (see Conscription Crisis of 1944). Similarly, mass protests against conscription to fight the Vietnam War occurred in several countries in the late 1960s. (See also: Conscription Crisis) Ypres, 1917, in the vicinity of the Battle of Passchendaele. ... Canada is a sovereign state in northern North America, the northern-most country in the world, and the second largest in total area. ... Ċ| The Conscription Crisis of 1917 was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War I. Background At the outbreak of war in 1914, over 30 000 volunteers joined the army, far more than expected. ... Motto: Quaerite Primum Regnum Dei (Seek ye first the kingdom of God) Other Canadian provinces and territories Capital St. ... Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is the sixth-largest country in the world, the only country to occupy an entire continent, and the largest in the region of Australasia/Oceania. ... New Zealand is an independent sovereign state in the south-western Pacific Ocean. ... The Conscription Crisis of 1944 was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War II. It was related to the Conscription Crisis of 1917, but was not as politically damaging. ... Centuries: 19th century - 20th century - 21st century Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s - 1960s - 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s Years: 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 Events and trends The 1960s was a turbulent decade of change around the world. ... A conscription crisis is a public dispute about a policy of conscription, or mandatory service in the military. ...

In developed nations, the increasing emphasis on technological firepower and better-trained fighting forces, the sheer unlikelihood of a conventional military assault on most developed nations, as well as memories of the contentiousness of the Vietnam War experience, make mass conscription unlikely in the foreseeable future.

Russia and China, as well as many smaller nations, retain mainly conscript armies. The Russian Federation (Russian: Росси́йская Федера́ция, transliteration: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya or Rossijskaja Federacija), or Russia (Russian: Росси́я, transliteration: Rossiya or Rossija), is a country that stretches over a vast expanse of eastern Europe and northern Asia. ... The Great Wall of China, stretching over 6,700 km, was erected beginning in the 3rd century BC to guard the north from raids by men on horses. ...

Women draftees

Most countries only draft men, although some (e.g., Israel) also draft women. Some have considered the practice of excluding women from the draft unfair, because they feel it goes against principles of equality. During World War II women were drafted into the armed forces of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union. The United States came close to drafting women into the Nurse Corps in preparation for a planned invasion of Japan; the Japanese surrender made this unnecessary. See also the disambiguation page titled equality for the mathematical and geographical topics. ... Soviet Union - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... Official language Japanese Capital Tokyo Largest City Tokyo Emperor Akihito Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi Area  - Total  - % water Ranked 60th 377,835 km² 0. ...

The non-egalitarian policy of drafting men and not women has often been a flash point and source of conflict. This policy is often cited by masculists as an example of an unfair policy which benefits women over men. Aprehension about the possible conscription of women was a key factor that led to the defeat of the Equal Rights Amendment in the United States. Egalitarianism is the moral doctrine that equality ought to prevail among some group along some dimension. ... Masculism is a body of social theory and political movement primarily based on the experiences of men. ... This article needs cleanup. ...

Conscientious objection

A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. In some countries, conscientious objectors have special legal status which augments their conscription duties. For example, Sweden allows conscientous objectors to choose a service in the "weapons-free" branch, services which will prove useful during an invasion, such as an airport fireman, nurse or telecommunications technician. The reasons for refusing to serve are varied. Many conscientious objectors are so for religious reasons -- notably, the Quakers are pacifist by doctrine, and Jehovah's Witnesses, while not strictly speaking pacifists, refuse to participate in the armed services on the grounds that they believe Christians should be neutral in worldly conflicts (also see Conscientious objection). A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. ... Military service is service in the armed forces of a nation or the military arm of a political organization. ... The Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige  listen) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. ... Fire exercice aboard the frigate La Motte-Picquet. ... A nurse is a health care professional, who is engaged in the practice of nursing. ... Telecommunication is the extension of communication over a distance. ... The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, or Friends, is a religious community founded in England in the 17th century. ... Pacifism is opposition to the practice of war. ... Jehovahs Witnesses (JW) are members of a worldwide Christian denomination. ... A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. ...

The provisions for conscientious objection to the draft have been viewed as unfairly descriminatory, favoring religious objection over non-religious objection, and favoring those who value peace and non-violence over those who value freedom. Alternative mandatory service can assuage objections based on peace and non-violence, but do nothing for those who objections arise from strongly held convictions about freedom.

Draft evaders

Not everyone who was conscripted was willing to go to war. Many young people used their family's political connections to ensure that they were placed well away from any potential harm. They would avoid military service altogether through college deferments. Others with political influence often joined the military and served in what was termed a Champagne unit. Others used educational exemptions, or became conscientious objectors. Others also pretended to be conscientious objectors. For others, the most common method of avoiding the draft was to cross the border into another country. People who have been "called up" for military service and who attempted to avoid it in some way, were known as "draft-dodgers". U.S. draft-dodgers made their way to Canada or Mexico. Australian draft-dodgers had greater difficulty leaving their country due to the surrounding ocean, but "going bush" worked just as well in the short term for many of them. A Champagne Unit is a pejorative term used to describe US Military units that are staffed by people from wealthy or politically powerful families, entertainment figures, or sports figures. ... Draft dodger is a term that became current during the Vietnam War to describe American citizens who were in threat of being drafted and who fled abroad, usually to Canada, to avoid it. ... Canada is a sovereign state in northern North America, the northern-most country in the world, and the second largest in total area. ... The United Mexican States or Mexico (Spanish: Estados Unidos Mexicanos or México; regarding the use of the variant spelling Méjico, see section The name below) is a country located in North America, bordered to the north by the United States of America, to the southeast by Guatemala and Belize, to... Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is the sixth-largest country in the world, the only country to occupy an entire continent, and the largest in the region of Australasia/Oceania. ...

Many people looked upon draft-dodgers with scorn as being "cowards", but some supported them in their efforts.

Draft resisters

The Vietnam War saw new levels of opposition to conscription and National Service. Many people opposed to and facing conscription, chose to either plead conscientious objection or to evade the draft by fleeing to a neutral country. A small proportion, like Muhammad Ali, chose to publicly and politically fight conscription. In Australia this was known as the Draft Resistance Movement. National Service was the name given to the system of military conscription employed in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland) between 1949 and 1960. ... Other people with this name: Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Mehemet Ali (Turkey) Muhammad Ali-Haj (born January 17, 1942 as Cassius Marcellus Clay Jr. ...

Countries with mandatory military service

A number of countries have mandatory military service:

Belarus

Belarus has mandatory military service for all fit men from 18 to 27 years of age. Military service lasts for 18 months for those without higher education, and for 12 months for those with higher education. Belarus (Belarusian: Белару́сь or Biełaruś, Russian: Белару́сь (formerly: Белору́ссия), Polish: Białoruś) is a landlocked nation of Eastern Europe with the capital Minsk. ...

Brazil

Brazil has mandatory military service for men from the age of 18 to 30. However, conscientious objection is allowed. When men register they can opt for which branch they would like to serve in. The Federative Republic of Brazil (República Federativa do Brasil in Portuguese) is the largest and most populous country in South America, and fifth largest in the world. ...

Bulgaria

Bulgaria has mandatory military service for male citizens from 18 to 27 years of age. Currently (2004) the duration of the service depends on the degree of education. For citizens studying for or holding a bachelor degree or higher the service is 6 months, and for citizens with no higher education it is 9 months. During the last 10 years the duration of service has rapidly dropped (from 2 years in 1994) and as Bulgaria adopts a professional army mandatory service is expected to be replaced with voluntary service. The Republic of Bulgaria is a republic in the southeast of Europe. ... 1994 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International year of the Family. ...

China (PRC)

The People's Republic of China technically has conscription for both men and women. Women who are conscripted go into the army for two months and learn to use firearms. The Peoples Republic of China (PRC) comprises most of the cultural, historic, and geographic area known as China. ...

Croatia

Croatian law prescribes military service for male citizens from 18 to 27 years old. The duration of the normal military service is six months (as of 2004), while conscientious objectors can apply for civil service which lasts for eight months. Conscription is regularly postponed for students until the end of their studies, as long as they apply before they turn 28 years of age. The Republic of Croatia is a crescent-shaped country in Europe bordering the Mediterranean, Central Europe and the Balkans. ...

Over the last decade or so, the duration of military service has been halved and civil service was introduced together with the streamlining of the professional army. Should this trend continue, the mandatory service may eventually be completely replaced with voluntary service.

Cyprus

Cyprus has compulsory military service for all Greek Cypriot men between the ages of 18 and 50. Military service lasts for 25 months. After that, ex-soldiers are considered reservists and participate in military exercises for a few days every year. Conscientious objectors can either do 33 months unarmed service in the army or 38 months community work. See official pages by the Greek Cypriot National Guard (http://www.army.gov.cy/index.php?id=76). In North Cyprus there is compulsory military service for Turkish Cypriots. The Annan Plan for Cyprus that was rejected in the 2004 reunification referendum mandated the demilitarisation of the island and the disbanding of both Greek Cypriot and Turkish Cypriot forces. Cyprus (in Greek Kypros Κύπρος and in Turkish Kıbrıs) is an island in the eastern Mediterranean Sea, 113 kilometres (70 miles) south of Turkey and around 120 km west of the Syrian coast. ... The Annan Plan was a rejected United Nations proposal to bring about the reunification of the divided island nation of Cyprus as the United Cyprus Republic. ... The two sectors of the divided island of Cyprus held a referendum on reunification on Saturday 24 April 2004. ...

Egypt

Egypt has a mandatory military service program for males between the ages of 18 and 28. Females of comparable age serve in a civilian program. Conscription is regularly postponed for students until the end of their studies, as long as they apply before they turn 28 years of age. By the age of 30 a male is considered unfit to join the army and pays a fine. Males serve for a period ranging from 24 months to 48 months depending on their education; high school dropouts serve for 48 months during which they finish their high-school education. College graduates serve for lesser periods of time, depending on their education, and college graduates with special skills are still conscripted yet at a different rank and with a different pay scale with the option of remaining with the service as a career. Some Egyptians evade conscription and travel overseas until they reach the age of 30, at which point they are tried, pay a $580 fine (as of 2004), and are dishonorably relieved of their obligation to serve in the army. Such an offense, legally considered an offense of "bad moral character", prevents the "unpatriotic" citizen from ever holding public office. The Arab Republic of Egypt, commonly known as Egypt, (in Arabic: مصر, romanized Miṣr or Maṣr, in Egyptian dialect) is a republic mostly located in north-eastern Africa. ...

Eritrea

Eritrea has a mandatory military service program for both men and women aged 18 through 40. The term of service is 18 months. There is no alternate service. The Eritrean government is well-known for hunting down and torturing suspected draft evaders. Draft evaders often flee the country to nearby countries. National motto: None Official languages Tigrigna, Arabic and English Capital Asmara President Isaias Afewerki Area  - Total  - % water Ranked 96th 121,320 km² Negligible Population  - Total (2002)  - Density Ranked 118th 4,298,269 37/km² Independence  - Limited  - Fully From Ethiopia  May 29, 1991  May 24, 1993 Currency Nakfa Time zone UTC...

Finland

As of 2004, Finland has mandatory military service for men of at least six months, depending on the assigned position: those trained as officers or NCOs serve for twelve months, specialty troops serve for nine or twelve months, and other rank and file serve for six months. Unarmed service is also possible, and lasts eleven months. Women can serve voluntarily. Non-military service of thirteen months is available in lieu of military service. Men who opt for neither are sent to open prison where they may work and study for a period of six months. Jehovah's Witnesses and citizens from the demilitarized Åland region do not have to serve. Military service has been mandatory for men throughout the history of independent Finland since 1917. The Republic of Finland (Finnish: Suomen tasavalta, Swedish: Republiken Finland) is a Nordic country in northeastern Europe, bordered by the Baltic Sea to the southwest, the Gulf of Finland to the southeast and the Gulf of Bothnia to the west. ... Jehovahs Witnesses (JW) are members of a worldwide Christian denomination. ... National motto: ? Official language Swedish Capital Mariehamn Governor Peter Lindbäck Premier Roger Nordlund Total Area  - Land  - Water 6,784 km² 1,527 km² 5,258 km² Population  - Total (2002)  - Density 26,257 17. ... 1917 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ...

Germany

Main article at Conscription in Germany

Germany has mandatory military service of nine months for men. Women may volunteer and are allowed to perform the same jobs as men. A conscientious objector may petition for permission to do civilian "alternative service" (Ersatzdienst) or "(alternative) civilian service" (Zivildienst) instead for nine months, which is usually accepted. A third option is to become a foreign "development helper" (Entwicklungshelfer) for at least eighteen months. Overall, however, during the past few years, the number of men being drafted has declined significantly. This article needs cleanup. ...

Save for a few exceptions, military service is compulsory for all men between the ages of 18 and 23 years. Those who are engaged in educational or vocational training programs prior to their military assessment are allowed to postpone service until they have completed the programs and can be called upon to perform their national duty at any time thereafter.

Greece

Main article at Conscription in Greece

As of 2004, Greece (Hellenic Republic) has mandatory military service of 12 months for men. However, it is developing a professional army system, and it is widely expected that the mandatory military service will be cut to 6 months by 2008 or even abolished completely. Although women are accepted into the Greek army, they are not obliged to join as men are. Soldiers receive no health insurance, but they can receive medical support during their army service, including hospitalization costs. They receive a symbolic salary of approximately 9 euros per month for privates, 12 euros for the rank of draft corporal and draft sergeant, and 600 euros as a draft cadet. The wages are not sufficient to sustain a draftee serving his tour away from his place of residence and most draftees depend financially on their parents to support them financially while they are on their tour. As of 2004, Greece (Hellenic Republic) has mandatory military service of 12 months for men. ... Greece, officaly called the Hellenic Republic (Greek: Ελληνική Δημοκρατία), is a country in the southeast of Europe on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula. ... 2008 is a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Euro (disambiguation). ... Euro (disambiguation). ... Euro (disambiguation). ...

Israel

Israel has mandatory military service for both Jewish men and women not married by the conscription age; some ethnic and religious groups are exempt. Typically, men serve for 36 months, women serve for 21 months. See also: Israel Defence Forces. The Israel Defense Forces (IDF) (Hebrew: צבא ההגנה לישראל Tsva Ha-Haganah Le-Yisrael ([Army] Force [for] the Defense of Israel), often abbreviated צהל Tsahal, alternative English spelling Tzahal, is the name of Israels armed forces (army, air force and navy). ...

There are growing numbers of refuseniks who resist military service, particularly in the Occupied Territories, some of them serving prison terms as a result. See also: Refusal to serve in the Israeli military. Refusenik: The name (in Hebrew: סרבנים , sar-van-nim) is used by Israeli soldiers and reservists who refuse to serve in the occupied territories, in protest against Israels actions in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. ... An occupied territory is a region that has been taken over by a sovereign power after a military intervention, see belligerent occupation. ... Note: The original term Refusenik was used to describe Russian Jews who had applied to leave the former Soviet Union and who either refused to leave without their family members, or more commonly, were refused exit-visas to leave for Israel. ...

Lebanon

Lebanon has mandatory military service of one year for men. See Official Information from Lebanese Army (http://www.lebarmy.gov.lb/English/FlagService.asp). The Lebanese Republic or Lebanon is a country in the Middle East, along the Mediterranean Sea, bordered by Syria and Israel. ...

Malaysia

As of 2004, Malaysia has mandatory national service of three months for a selected group of both men and women. Twenty per cent of 18-year-olds are selected through a lottery system to join this program. Trainees are not trained to use firearms. The first training date was February 16, 2004. See Official Information from Malaysia National Service Training Department (http://www.khidmatnegara.gov.my). The Federation of Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. ... Malaysian National Service, or Program Latihan Khidmat Negara was first proposed in late 2001, brought to committee the next year, and finally brought to action in 2003. ... February 16 is the 47th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

Mexico

Currently, all males reaching 18 years of age must register for military service (Servicio Militar Nacional, or SMN) of one year, though selection is made by a lottery system using the following color scheme: whoever draws a black ball must serve as a "disponibility reservist", that is, they must not follow any activities whatsoever and get their discharge card at the end of the year. The ones who get a white ball serve in a Batallón del Servicio Militar Nacional (National Military Service Battallion) composed entirely of one-year SMN conscripts. Those with a community service interest may participate in Literacy Campaigns as teachers, or as Phys-Ed instructors. Military service is also (voluntarily) open to women. In certain cities, such as Mexico City and Veracruz, there is a third option: a red ball (Mexico City) and a Blue ball (Veracruz), which entails serving a full year as a recruit in a Paratrooper Battalion in the case of Mexico City residents, or a Infantería de Marina unit (Navy Marines) in Veracruz. In other cities which have a Navy HQ (such as Ciudad Madero), it is the Navy which takes charge of the conscripts, instead of the Army.

Norway

Norway has mandatory military service of 18 months for men between the ages of 18 (17 with parental consent) and 42. The actual draft time is 6 months for the national guard, and 9-12 months for the regular army, air force, and navy. The remaining months are supposed to be served in annual exercises, but very few conscripts do this due to lack of funding to the Norwegian armed forces. Certain specialist training programs entail extended conscription of one to eight years. Pacifists can apply for non-military service, lasting 18 months. Women can volunteer for military service. Norway - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... Pacifism is opposition to the practice of war. ...

Poland

Poland has a compulsory service term of 12 months for all mature men. However, many of those are considered unfit for mandatory military service during peacetime. Effectively, only a few thousand men are drafted each autumn. Alternative service can be requested, e.g. in the police force. The Republic of Poland, a democratic country with a population of 38,626,349 and area of 312,685 km², is located in Central Europe, between Germany to the west, the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south, Ukraine and Belarus to the east, and the Baltic Sea, Lithuania and... MPD officers man a police-line in the District of Columbia A car of the Devon and Cornwall Constabulary, England Police forces are government organisations ostensibly charged with the responsibility of maintaining law and order. ...

Romania

Romania still has conscription. Even though in 2003 an amendment to the Constitution was advertised as making military service facultative, it only changed the way it is regulated, by organic law instead of the Constitution. In March 2004, the Parliament passed a law which increased the sentence for draft-dodgers, despite opposition protests. Men serve for 12 months (6 months if they have graduated a form of higher education). As of 2004, conscripts no longer serve in the Romanian Navy. Romania (formerly spelled Rumania or Roumania; Romanian: România) is a country in southeastern Europe. ... The Romanian Constitution is the fundamental law that establishes the structure of the government of Romania, the rights and obligations of the countrys citizens, and its mode of passing laws. ... The Parliamentary Opposition is a form of political opposition to a designated government, particularly in a Westminster-based parliamentary system. ...

Russia

As of 2002, Russia (Russian Federation) has a mandatory two-year draft but some Russians avoid it. See Only 11 percent of Russian men enter mandatory military service (http://www.spacedaily.com/2002/021206145741.ooyw2y54.html). The Russian Federation (Russian: Росси́йская Федера́ция, transliteration: Rossiyskaya Federatsiya or Rossijskaja Federacija), or Russia (Russian: Росси́я, transliteration: Rossiya or Rossija), is a country that stretches over a vast expanse of eastern Europe and northern Asia. ...

Singapore

In Singapore, the NS (Amendment) Act was passed on 14 March 1967, under which all able-bodied male citizens of 18-21 years of age are required serve a compulsory military service of two years. Upon completion of full-time NS, they undergo reservist training cycles of 40 days a year for the next 13 years.

Singapore, which currently has a mandatory service period of 24 months, used to have one of the longest mandatory military service periods for males, at 30 months. It also has special policies for ethnic Malays, because of possible conflicts in allegiances with neighbour Malaysia. Some of the Malays are drafted into the police or Civil Defense. Further conscription liability in the form of reservist training extends annually for another 10-15 years. From 1st December 2004, it has been shortened by 6 months. National motto: Majulah Singapura (English: Onward, Singapore) National anthem: Majulah Singapura Capital Singapore1 Largest city Singapore1 Official languages English, Mandarin Chinese, Malay, Tamil Government President Prime minister Westminster system (de jure) Dominant-party system (de facto) Sellapan Rama Nathan Lee Hsien Loong Independence - From Malaysia August 9, 1965 Area  - Total... Three-quarter scale bronze sculptures 19th C. Malay people, Indonesia, Borneo. ... The Federation of Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. ... MPD officers man a police-line in the District of Columbia A car of the Devon and Cornwall Constabulary, England Police forces are government organisations ostensibly charged with the responsibility of maintaining law and order. ... The old American Civil Defense logo, used today federally only as a historical reminder on FEMAs seal, the triangle emphasises the 3-step Civil Defense philosophy used before the foundation of FEMA and Comprehensive Emergency Management. ...

See National Service National Service was the name given to the system of military conscription employed in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland) between 1949 and 1960. ...

South Korea

As of 2004, South Korea has mandatory military service of 24 months. See: [1] (http://kn.koreaherald.co.kr/SITE/data/html_dir/2002/12/14/200212140004.asp). South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK; Korean: Daehan Minguk (Hangul: 대한 민국; Hanja: 大韓民國)), is a country in East Asia, covering the southern half of the Korean Peninsula. ...

Sweden

In Sweden military service is mandatory for men only. As of 2002, Sweden's government asked the army to consider mandatory military service for women. Less than one third of the country's eligible 19-year-olds are actually drafted each year. See Sweden considers mandatory military service for women (http://www.news-star.com/stories/062703/New_8.shtml). Men may choose to do unarmed service, for instance as a firefighter. Generally, unarmed service is longer than armed. The Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige  listen) is a Nordic country in Scandinavia, in Northern Europe. ... Firefighter with an axe A firefighter, sometimes still called a fireman though women have increasingly joined firefighting units, is a person who is trained and equipped to put out fires, rescue people and in some areas provide emergency medical services. ...

Switzerland

Switzerland has the largest militia army in the world (220,000 including reserves). Military service for Swiss men is obligatory according to the Federal Constitution, and includes 17 weeks of basic training as well as annual 3-week-refresher courses until a number of service days which increases with rank (260 days for privates) is reached. Service for women is voluntary, but identical in all respects. Conscientious objectors can choose 450 days of community service instead of military service. Medical deferments and dismissals from basic training (often on somewhat dubious grounds) have increased significantly in the last years. Therefore, only about 33% of Swiss men actually complete basic training. The Swiss Confederation or Switzerland is a landlocked federal state in Europe, with neighbours Germany, France, Italy, Austria and Liechtenstein. ... A militia is a group of citizens organized to provide paramilitary service. ...

Taiwan (ROC)

The Republic of China has had mandatory military service for all males since 1949. Females in the outlying islands of Fujian must also serve. From January 2004, the mandatory service was shortened by two months. The Republic of China ( Traditional Chinese: 中華民國; Simplified Chinese: 中华民国; Wade-Giles: Chung-hua Min-kuo, Tongyong Pinyin: JhongHuá MínGuó, Hanyu Pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínguó) is a multiparty democratic state that is composed of the island groups of Taiwan, the Pescadores, Quemoy, and the Matsu. ... 1949 is a common year starting on Saturday. ... Fujian (Chinese: 福建; pinyin: Fújiàn; Wade-Giles: Fu-chien; Postal System Pinyin: Fukien, Foukien; local transliteration Hokkien from Min Nan Hok-kiàn) is one of the provinces on the southeast coast of China. ... January is the first month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar and one of seven Gregorian months with the length of 31 days. ...

Turkey

In Turkey, compulsory military service applies to all male citizens from 20 to 41 years of age (with some exceptions). Those who are engaged in higher education or vocational training programs prior to their military drafting are allowed to delay service until they have completed the programs. The duration of the basic military service varies. As of July 2003, the reduced durations are as follows: 15 months for privates (previously 18 months), 12 months for reserve officers (previously 16 months) and 6 months for short-term privates, which denotes those who have earned a university degree and not have been enlisted as reserve officers (previously 8 months). The Republic of Turkey is a country located in Southwest Asia with a small part of its territory (3%) in southeastern Europe. ...

For Turkish citizens who have lived or worked abroad of Turkey for at least three years, on condition that they pay a certain fee in foreign currencies, a basic military training of one month is offered instead of the full-term military service. Also, when the General Staff assesses that the military reserve exceeds the required amount, paid military service of one-month's basic training is established.

Although women have in principle no military service, they are allowed to become officers.

Refusing the obligatory military service due to conscientious objection is illegal in Turkey, and punishable with imprisonment by law.

Ukraine

The options include officer of reserve training for two years offered in universities as a part of a program, or one year regular service.

Venezuela

In Venezuela, all citizens over 18 should report to the local military authority for evaluation. If the citizen can provide enough proof that they should not serve (They are college students, or have medical reason not to) they are exempt. However if they cannot prove this, they are conscripted and must serve up to 2 years of mandatory military service. The Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish: República Bolivariana de Venezuela)1 is a country in northern South America. ...

Raids are usually made in night clubs and other nocturnal entertainment places to check whether or not men inside are 'registered' as reservists.

Countries that do not currently have mandatory military service (partial list)

Australia

See main article: History of Australian conscription

Conscription in Australia, also known as National Service, has a controversial history dating back to the first years of nationhood. ...

Belgium

Belgium abolished military conscription in the early 1990s. The Kingdom of Belgium (Dutch: Koninkrijk België, French: Royaume de Belgique, German: Königreich Belgien) is a country in Western Europe, bordered by the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, France, and the North Sea. ...

Canada

See main articles: Conscription Crisis of 1917 and Conscription Crisis of 1944

In Canada conscription has never taken place in peacetime. Conscription became an extremely controversial issue during both World War I and World War II, especially in the province of Quebec. Ċ| The Conscription Crisis of 1917 was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War I. Background At the outbreak of war in 1914, over 30 000 volunteers joined the army, far more than expected. ... The Conscription Crisis of 1944 was a political and military crisis in Canada during World War II. It was related to the Conscription Crisis of 1917, but was not as politically damaging. ... Canada is a sovereign state in northern North America, the northern-most country in the world, and the second largest in total area. ... Ypres, 1917, in the vicinity of the Battle of Passchendaele. ... This article describes the Canadian province. ...

Czech Republic

The Czech Republic abolished compulsory military service on December 31, 2004. See announcement by the Minister of Defence (http://www.army.cz/scripts/detail.php?id=3041) and related BBC News article  (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4118461.stm). National motto: Truth prevails (Czech: Pravda vítězí) Official language Czech Capital Praha (Prague) President Václav Klaus Prime Minister Jiří Paroubek Area  - Total  - % water Ranked 114th 78,866 km² 2% Population  - Total (2003)  - Density Ranked 76th 10. ... December 31 is the 365th day of the year (366th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

France

France was one of the first nations to employ conscription, since during the wars following the French Revolution the army needed men to stop Austrian and British invasions. France abolished peacetime military conscription in 2001 (see related BBC News article  (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1682777.stm)); since the Algerian War of Independence, conscripts had not been deployed abroad or in war zones, except those volunteering for such deployments. The French Republic or France (French: République française or France) is a country whose metropolitan territory is located in western Europe, and which is further made up of a collection of overseas islands and territories located in other continents. ... The period of the French Revolution in the history of France covers the years between 1789 and 1799, in which democrats and republicans overthrew the absolute monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church was forced to undergo radical restructuring. ... The Algerian War of Independence ( 1954– 62) was a period of guerrilla strikes, maquis fighting, terrorism against civilians on both sides, and riots between the French army and colonists in Algeria and the FLN (Front de Libération Nationale) and other pro-independence Algerians. ...

Hungary

Hungary abolished mandatory military service by November 2004, after the parliament had modified the constitution, ending a long-standing political dispute. To restore drafting, a two-thirds vote in parliament is needed, which is unlikely in the short term. The country is currently developing a professional army, with strong emphasis on "contract soldiers" who voluntarily serve 4+4 years for a wage. The Republic of Hungary (Magyar Köztársaság) or Hungary (Magyarország) is a landlocked country in Central Europe, bordered by Austria, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia. ... November is the eleventh month of the year in the Gregorian Calendar and one of four Gregorian months with the length of 30 days. ... The National Assembly of Hungary (Országgyűlés) is the national parliament of Hungary. ...

Iraq

Saddam Hussein's large Iraqi army was largely composed of conscripts, except for the elite Republican Guard. About 100,000 conscripts died during the First Gulf War, also known as Operation Desert Storm. Following the Second Gulf War, the Iraqi Army was recreated as a volunteer force. The Republic of Iraq is a Middle Eastern country in southwestern Asia encompassing the ancient region of Mesopotamia at the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. ... The Iraqi Republican Guard (RG) was the core of the Iraqi military. ... See also: 2003 invasion of Iraq and Gulf War (disambiguation) C Company, 1st Battalion, The Staffordshire Regiment, 1st UK Armoured Division The Persian Gulf War was a conflict between Iraq and a coalition force of 34 nations led by the United States. ... For other uses of the term, see Iraq war (disambiguation) The 2003 invasion of Iraq (also called the 2nd or 3rd Persian Gulf War) began on March 20, 2003, when forces belonging primarily to the United States and the United Kingdom invaded Iraq without the explicit backing of the United...

Ireland

Ireland has always had a fully volunteer military. See the Irish Defence Forces (http://www.military.ie/). The threat of conscription being extended to Ireland in the First World War contributed to the creation of the Irish Free State in the 1920s. A true colour image of Ireland, captured by a NASA satellite on January 4, 2003. ... Ypres, 1917, in the vicinity of the Battle of Passchendaele. ... The Irish Free State (Irish: Saorstát Éireann) was (1922–1937) the name of the state comprising the 26 of Irelands 32 counties which were separated from the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland under the Irish Free State Agreement (or Anglo-Irish Treaty) signed by British and Irish...

Italy

Until January 1, 2005, Italy had mandatory military service for men between the ages of 18 and 45. Men were usually required to serve for ten months. Anyone objecting to military service for religious or ethical reasons could claim to be a conscientious objector, in which case community service was usually authorised as an alternative to the regular ten months of military service. The Italian Republic or Italy (Italian: Repubblica Italiana or Italia) is a country in southern Europe. ...

The Italian Parliament, by a large majority, voted to abolish mandatory military service from January 1, 2005, and the Italian armed forces will be now be entirely composed of professional volunteer troops, both male and female. [2] (http://www.repubblica.it/2004/g/sezioni/cronaca/fineleva/fineleva/fineleva.html).

Luxembourg

Luxembourg has a volunteer military. See the National Museum of Military History (http://www.nat-military-museum.lu/). The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is a small landlocked state in the north-west of the continental European Union, bordered by France, Germany and Belgium. ...

Netherlands

The Netherlands abolished compulsory military service in the mid-1990s. The Netherlands (Dutch: Nederland) is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Dutch: Koninkrijk der Nederlanden). ... Events and trends Technology Explosive growth of the Internet; decrease in the cost of computers and other technology Reduction in size and cost of mobile phones leads to a massive surge in their popularity Year 2000 problem (commonly known as Y2K) Microsoft Windows operating system becomes virtually ubiquitous on IBM...

Portugal

Portugal abolished compulsory military service on November 19, 2004. See an announcement by the Minister of Defence (http://www.mdn.gov.pt/destaques/2004/fim_servico_militar.htm). November 19 is the 323rd day of the year (324th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ...

Slovenia

Slovenia's Prime Minister Anton Rop abolished mandatory military service on September 9, 2003. See the official press release (http://nato.gov.si/eng/press-centre/press-releases/2212/). Slovenia - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... Alternative meaning: Prime Minister (band) A prime minister is the leading member of the cabinet of the top level government in a parliamentary system of government of a country, alternatively A prime minister is an official in a presidential system or semi-presidential system whose duty is to execute the... Anton Rop Anton Rop (born 27 December 1960) was the fourth Prime Minister of Slovenia. ... September 9 is the 252nd day of the year (253rd in leap years). ...

Spain

Spain abolished compulsory military service in 2001. See an announcement by the Minister of Defence (http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2001/03/09/espana/984145280.html). Military and alternative service was 9 months long and in recent years the majority of conscripts chose to perform alternative, rather than military, service. The Kingdom of Spain or Spain (Spanish and Galician: Reino de España or España; Catalan: Regne dEspanya; Basque: Espainiako Erresuma) is a country located in the southwest of Europe. ...

United Kingdom

Great Britain introduced conscription during both world wars, in 1916 and 1939 respectively. After World War II, it introduced National Service, which was abolished in 1960. Ireland was initially exempt from conscription in the First World War, but it was extended to Ireland on April 9, 1918. This was a decisive factor in pushing the country into seeking its independence. The poet W.B. Yeats wrote to Lord Haldane in protest: "...it seems to me a strangely wanton thing that England, for the sake of 50,000 Irish soldiers, is prepared to hollow another trench between the countries and fill it with blood." Also in protest, Lady Gregory declared "women and children will stand in front of their men and receive the bullets, rather than let them be taken to the front." Northern Ireland was exempt from conscription in the Second World War, and was also excluded from the post-war National Service. Great Britain - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... 1916 is a leap year starting on Saturday (link will take you to calendar) Events January-February January 1 -The first successful blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled. ... 1939 was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... National Service was the name given to the system of military conscription employed in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland) between 1949 and 1960. ... 1960 was a leap year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... A true colour image of Ireland, captured by a NASA satellite on January 4, 2003. ... April 9 is the 99th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (100th in leap years). ... 1918 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... An Irish War of Independence memorial in Dublin The Anglo-Irish War (also known as the Irish War of Independence) was a Ireland by the Irish Republican Army. ... A 1907 engraving of Yeats. ... Richard Burdon Sanderson Haldane, 1st Viscount Haldane, (July 30, 1856 - August 19, 1928), was an important British Liberal politician, lawyer, and philosopher. ... A photograph of Lady Gregory from her 1913 book Our Irish Theatre Isabella Augusta, Lady Gregory (15 March 1852–22 May 1932), née Isabella Augusta Persse, was an Irish dramatist and folklorist. ... Northern Ireland is an administrative region and one of four parts of the United Kingdom. ...

United States

See main article: Conscription in the United States

The United States has employed conscription intermittently. For example, in 1863 the imposition of a draft during the Civil War touched off the New York Draft Riots. Conscription was next used after the United States entered World War I in 1917. The first instance of conscription when the country was not at war came with the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940. Conscription ended in 1973. Currently, male U.S. citizens and many male aliens living in the U.S., if aged 18 through 25, are required to register with the Selective Service System, which describes its mission as "preparing to manage a draft if and when Congress and the President so direct." [3] (http://www.sss.gov/) The United States has employed conscription (mandatory military service, also called the draft) several times, usually during war but also during the nominal peace of the Cold War. ... 1863 is a common year starting on Thursday. ... The American Civil War was fought in the United States from 1861 until 1865 between the northern states, popularly referred to as the U.S., the Union, the North, or the Yankees; and the seceding southern states, commonly referred to as the Confederate States of America, the CSA, the Confederacy... The New York Draft Riots of 1863 initially represented protests in response to President Abraham Lincolns Enrollment Act of Conscription to draft men to fight in the ongoing Civil War. ... 1917 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1940 was a leap year starting on Monday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1973 was a common year starting on Monday. ... SSS redirects to here, you may also want the Social Security System The Selective Service System, in the United States, is a system to register all males over the age of 18 for the purpose of having information available about potential soldiers in case of war. ...

Arguments for and against conscription

Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...

Valuable training

Some argue that peacetime conscription is an ideal tool for teaching a population basic, important skills such as first aid, swimming, wilderness survival et cetera. However, it can be argued that these skills could better be taught in the public school system than during mandatory service.

The draft as protection against democracy-destroying military coups

Some argue that conscription should be connected to democracy. If the army of a country consists only of professional military personnel, then it looks like a praetorian guard, rather than a force of soldiers fighting for their country. The leader of the praetorians could easily overrun or conquer any democratic society, as has happened many times in the past. As long as countries need armies, an army of citizens is far better than an army of mercenaries. A coup détat, or simply a coup, is the sudden overthrow of a government, usually done by a small group that just replaces the top power figures. ...

Personnel diversity

Perhaps the kind of people who most strongly want to be in the military are not the only kind of people you want in it. Conscripts come from other backgrounds and might have differing opinions and views. A diverse group is more likely to succeed at any task. Still, the lower morale of conscripts may make them less useful in actual combat situations, especially in wars of aggression.

Of course, personnel diversity might be bad for the army in some ways, but it also helps different people come together and realize the true nature of an all-inclusive society, helping them understand the problems of other classes/professions/cultures/educational levels.

The draft as slavery

"Conscription subjects individual personalities to militarism. It is a form of servitude. That nations routinely tolerate it, is just one more proof of its debilitating influence" by Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, H.G. Wells, Bertrand Russell and Thomas Mann in Against Conscription and the Military Training of Youth--1930 (http://www.peace.ca/manifestoagainstconscription.htm) Portrait of Albert Einstein taken by Yousuf Karsh on February 11, 1948 Albert Einstein (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a theoretical physicist who is widely regarded as the greatest scientist of the 20th century. ... Sigmund Freud His famous couch Sigmund Freud (May 6, 1856 - September 23, 1939) was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of the psychoanalytic place of psychology, a movement that damaged the theory that unconscious motives control much behavior. ... H. G. Wells at the door of his house at Sandgate Herbert George Wells (September 21, 1866 - August 13, 1946) was an English writer best known for his science fiction novels such as The War of the Worlds and The Time Machine. ... Thomas Mann (June 6, 1875–August 12, 1955) was a German novelist and essayist, lauded principally for a series of highly symbolic and often ironic epic novels and mid-length stories, noted for their insight into the psychology of the artist and intellectual and an underlying eroticism informed by Mann...

Some groups, such as libertarians, say that the draft constitutes slavery, since it is mandatory work. Under the 13th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, slavery or indentured servitude is not allowed unless it is part of punishment for a crime. They therefore see the draft as unconstitutional (at least in the U.S.) and immoral. As this opinion has not been decided one way or the other by the courts the draft remains an option for the US government for the future. This article deals with the libertarianism as defined in America and several other nations. ... Slavery is any of a number of related conditions involving control of a person against his or her will, enforced by violence or other clear forms of coercion. ... (Redirected from 13th Amendment) The Thirteenth Amendment may refer to the: Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution - outlaws slavery. ... Constitutionality is the status of a law, procedure, or act being in accordance with the laws or guidelines contained in a constitution. ...

In the USSR, most of the conscripts received only very basic training and were used for forced labor unrelated to actual military service - usually digging up potatoes in the field with zero wage cost. The Soviet planned economy system thus had no incentive to produce better combined harvesting machines and Soviet agriculture remained low-tech.

In Soviet-bloc Hungary, more than half of pre-1989 conscripts received a mere few weeks of rifle training and were swiftly assigned to "working squadrons" which usually hand-built rail tracks "for free", and in very poor quality. At the same time, railway tracks in Western Europe were being built to high-quality standards by semi-automatic, rail-rolling factories operated by a professional workforce. During the Cold War, the Eastern Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) comprised the following Central and Eastern European countries: Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, East Germany, Poland, Albania (until the early 1960s, see below), the Soviet Union, and Czechoslovakia. ... The Republic of Hungary (Magyar Köztársaság) or Hungary (Magyarország) is a landlocked country in Central Europe, bordered by Austria, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, Croatia and Slovenia. ... A rifle is any long gun which has a rifled barrel. ... Railroad or railway tracks are used on railways, which, together with railroad switches (points), guide trains without the need for steering. ...

These are examples of a "military" draft used to obtain involuntary labour.

The draft as nationalism

The military draft is predicated on the assumption that nations have rights that supersede those of the individual, Einstein and Gandhi put it this way "The State which thinks itself entitled to force its citizens to go to war will never pay proper regard to the value and happiness of their lives in peace." in the Anti-Conscription Manifesto. The building of large conscript armies coincided with the rise of virulent nationalism in the 19th and 20th centuries. Nationalism is an ideology that creates and sustains a nation as a concept of a common identity for groups of humans. ...

Draftees can object being conscripted if they are separatists and do not want to support the armies of the state they oppose. On the other hand, some separatist fighters acquire their military skills in the army they will later fight against. Political separatism is a movement to obtain sovereignty and split a territory or group of people (usually a people with a distinctive national consciousness) from one another (or one nation from another; a colony from the metropolis). ...

The draft as justification for attacks on civilians

Conscription is a component of "total war," and can also be used as an example of established policy to justify a government's demand that other sacrifices be required of civilians. Once a draft is allowed, Justice Louis Brandeis argued, “all bets are off". Arguably this results in a blurring of the moral distinction between civilians and the military as legitimate military targets, leading to attacks on civilians. Examples would include the indiscriminate bombing of cities conducted by both sides during World War II, or the assertion by terrorist groups that civilians are legitimate targets. Louis D. Brandeis Louis Dembitz Brandeis (November 13, 1856 - October 3, 1941) was an important American litigator, Justice, advocate of privacy, and developer of the Brandeis Brief. ...

Questions of Conscript Quality

One of the objections raised is a consripted force would be of lower quality than a volunteer army. First, short periods of service do not allow for much skill building. Second, there is a possiblity of a morale drop in units with conscripts, leading to a reduction in quality as officers and NCO's work to alleviate those problems.

See also

• Conscientious objection
• Impressment
• Military
• Military history
• Swiss Army
• National Service
• Timeline of women's participation in warfare

A conscientious objector is an individual whose personal beliefs are incompatible with military service, or sometimes with any role in the armed forces. ... Impressment is the act of kidnapping people to serve as sailors. ... A military or miltary force (n. ... Military history is the recording (in writing or otherwise) of the events in the history of humanity that fall within the category of conflict. This may range from a dispute between two tribes that come to blow over a plot of land, to a world war. ... Military of Switzerland On May 18, 2003, Swiss voters approved the military reform project Army XXI that will drastically reduce the size of the Swiss Army. ... National Service was the name given to the system of military conscription employed in Great Britain (but not Northern Ireland) between 1949 and 1960. ... Women have participated in warfare in a variety of ways in different times and places. ...

External links

• "It is debasing human dignity to force men to give up their life, or to inflict death against their will, or without conviction as to the justice of their action." -- Albert Einstein, Mahatma Gandhi in the MANIFESTO AGAINST CONSCRIPTION AND THE MILITARY SYSTEM (http://www.peace.ca/manifestoagainstconscription.htm)
• Campaign to Abolish Mandatory Military Service in Slovakia (http://www.foodnotbombs.nl/pages/Slovakia.htm)
• Rangel calls for mandatory military service (http://edition.cnn.com/2002/ALLPOLITICS/12/29/mandatory.military/)
• The Association for Injuried Officers And Soldiers of Mandatory Military Service, Republic of China (http://www.iosmms.org.tw/KUN_1.HTM)
• The European Bureau for Conscientious Objection (http://www.ebco-beoc.org)
• Campaign Against Conscription in Greece (http://www.omhroi.gr)
• Australian Draft Resistance and the Vietnam War (http://www.takver.com/history/matteson.htm)
• Canadian Newspaper Archives - Conscription (http://warmuseum.ca/cwm/newspapers/canadawar/conscription_e.html)
• Anti-Conscription Web Ring (http://h.webring.com/hub?ring=anticonscription)
• Refusing to bear arms (http://www.wri-irg.org/co/rtba/): a survey around the world, conducted by "War Resisters' International" about conscription and conscientious objection to military service.