Confessio Amantis ("The Lover's Confession") is a 33,000-line Middle English poem by John Gower, which uses the confession made by an ageing lover to the chaplain of Venus as a frame story for a collection of shorter narrative poems. Gower claimed in the text that the poem was composed at the request of Richard II. It stands with the works of Chaucer, Langland, and the Pearl poet as one of the great works of late 14th century English literature. Jump to: navigation, search Middle English is the name given by historical linguistics to the diverse forms of the English language spoken between the Norman invasion in 1066 and the mid-to-late 15th century, when the Chancery Standard, a form of London-based English, began to become widespread, a... The tomb of John Gower in Southwark Cathedral. ... Jump to: navigation, search In criminal proceedings, a confession is a document in which a suspect admits having committed a crime. ... Jump to: navigation, search Venus is a Roman goddess principally associated with love, broadly, although not completely, equivalent to Greek Aphrodite and Etruscan Turan. ... A frame story (also frame tale, frame narrative, etc) is a narrative technique whereby a main story is composed, at least in part, for the purpose of organizing a set of shorter stories, each of which is a story within a story. ... Richard II (January 6, 1367 – February 14, 1400) was the son of Edward the Black Prince, Prince of Wales, and Joan The Fair Maid of Kent. He was born at Bordeaux and became his fathers heir when his elder brother died in infancy. ... Jump to: navigation, search Chaucer: Illustration from Cassells History of England, circa 1902 Geoffrey Chaucer (c. ... William Langland is the reputed author of the 14th-century English dream-vision Piers Plowman. ... The Pearl Poet is the name given to the author of Pearl, an alliterative poem written in Middle English. ...

In genre it is usually considered a poem of consolation, a medieval form inspired by Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy and typified by works such as Pearl. Despite this, it is more usually studied alongside other tale collections with similar structures, such as the Decameron of Boccaccio, and particularly Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, with which the Confessio has several stories in common. Anicius Manlius Severinus Bo thius (AD 480 - 524 or 525) was a Christian philosopher of the 6th century. ... This early printed book has many hand-painted illustrations depicting Lady Philosophy and scenes of daily life in fifteenth-century Ghent (1485) Consolation of Philosophy (Latin: Consolatio Philosophiae) is a philosophical work by Boethius written in about the year 524 AD. It has been described as the single most important... Pearl is a Middle English alliterative poem written in the late 14th century. ... Jump to: navigation, search The Decameron (subtitle: Prencipe Galeotto) is a collection of 100 novellas by Italian author Giovanni Boccaccio, probably begun in 1350 and finished in 1353. ... Jump to: navigation, search Giovanni Boccaccio Giovanni Boccaccio (June 16, 1313 – December 21, 1375) was an Italian author and poet, a friend and correspondent of Petrarch, an important Renaissance humanist in his own right and author of a number of notable works including On Famous Women, the Decameron and his... Jump to: navigation, search Canterbury Tales Woodcut 1484 The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the rest in verse). ...

Textual history

Composition of the work probably began circa 1386, and the completed work was published in 1390. The prologue of this first recension recounts that the work was commissioned by Richard II after a chance meeting with the royal barge on the River Thames; the epilogue dedicates the work to Richard and to Chaucer, as the "disciple and poete" of Venus. This version of the work saw widespread circulation, perhaps due to its royal connections (Peck 2000), and was the most popular of Gower's works, with at least 32 of the 49 surviving manuscripts of the Confessio containing this version. Richard II (January 6, 1367 – February 14, 1400) was the son of Edward the Black Prince, Prince of Wales, and Joan The Fair Maid of Kent. He was born at Bordeaux and became his fathers heir when his elder brother died in infancy. ...

The subsequent history is complicated and not entirely certain. Much revision took place, some of it by Gower and some probably by individual scribes. What follows is the conventional history as formulated by Macaulay (1901). The true story is probably somewhat more complicated (see e.g. Watt 2003:11–13 for an overview of recent work).

According to Macaulay, a second recension was issued in about 1392, with some significant changes: most notably, most references to Richard are removed, as is the dedication to Chaucer, and these are replaced with a new dedication to Henry of Lancaster, the future Henry IV. It has naturally been commonly assumed that this reflects a shift in the poet's loyalties, and indeed there are signs that Gower was more attached to Henry's party from this period; but while he did attack Richard later in the decade, there is no evidence that these early changes indicate any particular hostility towards either Richard or Chaucer (Peck 2000), and it has been argued that the revision process was not politically motivated at all, but begun rather because Gower wished to improve the style of the work (Burrows 1971:32), with the dedications being altered as a purely secondary matter. Henry IV (April 3, 1367 – March 20, 1413) was born at boilingbroke Castle in Lincolnshire, -=hence the other name by which he was known, Henry of boilingbroke. His father, John of Gaunt was the third and oldest surviving son of King Edward III of England, and enjoyed a position of...

A third and final recension was published in 1393, retaining the dedication to Henry. While only a few manuscripts of this version survive, it has been taken as representing Gower's final vision for the work, and is the best-known version, having served as the basis of all modern editions.

Style and language

Gower's previous works had been written in Anglo-Norman and Latin. It is not certain why he chose to write his third long poem in English; the only reason Gower himself gives is that "fewe men endite In oure englyssh" (prol.22–23). It has been suggested that it was the influence of Chaucer, who had in part dedicated his Troilus and Criseyde to Gower, that persuaded him that the vernacular was a suitable language for poetry, and the influence of Chaucer's Legend of Good Women has been detected in the Confessio (Macaulay 1908:166). The Anglo-Norman language is the name given to the variety of Norman spoken by the Anglo-Normans, the descendants of the Normans who ruled England following the conquest by William of Normandy in 1066. ... Jump to: navigation, search Latin is an Indo-European language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... Troilus and Criseyde is Geoffrey Chaucers poem in rhyme royal re-telling the tragic love story of Troilus, a Trojan prince, and Criseyde. ... Jump to: navigation, search The vernacular is the native language of a country or locality. ... The Legend of Good Women is a poem in the form of a dream vision by Geoffrey Chaucer. ...

With the exception a 74 line letter "unto cupid and to venus" in Book VIII, Gower did not adopt the new pentameter with which Chaucer had recently been experimenting, and which was in the 15th century to become the standard metre for English rhyme. He retained instead the octosyllabic line that had previously been the standard form for English poetry, and wrote it in couplets, rather than in the stanzas he had employed in his previous works. Gower characterised his verse in the Confessio as the plain style. In poetry, a pentameter is a line of verse consisting of five metrical feet: Be what you can if thus your heart so deem, For more the man will less the foible seem. ... Jump to: navigation, search This page is a candidate to be copied to Wiktionary. ...

This decision has not always met with appreciation, the shorter lines being sometimes viewed as lending themselves to monotonous regularity, but Gower's handling of the metre has usually been praised. Macaulay (1901) finds his style technically superior to Chaucer's, admiring "the metrical smoothness of his lines, attained without unnatural accent or forced order of words". The work's most enthusiastic advocate was C.S. Lewis, who, though admitting that the work can be "prosaic" and "dull" in places, identifies a "sweetness and freshness" in the verse and praises its "memorable precision and weight" (Lewis 1936:201). Not all assessments have been so positive: Burrow (1971:31) describes it as "not so much plain as threadbare", and notes that the selective quotations of previous critics have served to draw attention to sections that are better poetry, but unrepresentative examples of the work as a whole. Clive Staples Lewis (November 29, 1898 – November 22, 1963), commonly referred to as C. S. Lewis, was an author and scholar. ...

The language is the same standard London dialect in which Chaucer also wrote. Gower's vocabulary is educated, with extensive use of French and Latin loans, some of them apparently original; for example, the Confessio is the earliest work in which the word "history" is attested in English (Peck 2000). That the work was aimed at a similarly educated audience is clear from the inclusion of Latin epigraphs at the start of each major section. A loanword (or a borrowing) is a word taken into by one language from another. ... In literature, an epigraph is a quotation that is placed at the start of a work or section that expresses in some succinct way an aspect or theme of what is to follow. ...

Structure and argument

The Confessio is divided into a prologue and eight books, which are divided thematically. The narrative structure is overlaid on this in three levels: the external matter, the narrative frame, and the individual tales which make up the bulk of the work. A frame story (also frame tale, frame narrative, etc) is a narrative technique whereby a main story is composed, at least in part, for the purpose of organizing a set of shorter stories, each of which is a story within a story. ...

External matter

The external matter comprises the prologue, which spills over briefly into the start of Book 1, and an epilogue at the end of Book 8. Unlike the bulk of the Confessio, these have much in common with Gower's previous works (Pearsall 1966:475). In the prologue he details at some length the numerous failings he identifies in the three estates (government, church, and people) of his time. This section ends with an account of the dream of Nebuchadnezzar (which draws on a similar passage in the Vox Clamantis), identifying the statue's feet of iron mixed with clay with the medieval world that Gower percieves as hopelessly divided and in danger of imminent collapse. Tens of thousands of lines later, the epilogue returns to these concerns, again touching on the matters Gower believes each estate needs most urgently to attend to. Jump to: navigation, search In France under the ancien régime, the Estates of the realm were the three divisions of the Estates-General. ... Nebuchadnezzar (or Nebudchadrezzar) II (ca. ... Vox Clamantis (the voice crying out) is a Latin poem of around 10,000 lines in elegiac verse by John Gower that recounts the events and tragedy of the 1381 Peasants Rising. ...

In this context, the plan of the work given in the prologue is one of the most-quoted passages of the poem:

Bot for men sein, and soth it is,

That who that al of wisdom writ

It dulleth ofte a mannes wit

To him that schal it aldai rede,

For thilke cause, if that ye rede,

I wolde go the middel weie

And wryte a bok betwen the tweie,

Somwhat of lust, somewhat of lore...

(prol.12–19)

This is essentially what he does; the external matter and parts of the narrative frame, together with some long digressions (most notably the whole of Book 7, discussed below) make up the "lore", while the majority of the tales are wholly concerned with "lust".

Narrative frame

The frame story as such is easily summarised. The narrator of this section, conventionally referred to as Amans or the Lover, wanders through a forest in May, as medieval lovers typically do, and despairs at his lack of success. He invokes Venus and Cupid, who promptly appear and demand to know the reason for his sorrow. Upon being told that he is on the verge of dying from love, Venus insists that he be shriven, and summons her chaplain Genius to hear his confession. When at last Genius pronounces Amans absolved of all his sins against love, Venus cures him of his infatuation. Jump to: navigation, search Venus is a Roman goddess principally associated with love, broadly, although not completely, equivalent to Greek Aphrodite and Etruscan Turan. ... Jump to: navigation, search Cupidon (French for Cupid), by William-Adolphe Bouguereau, 1875 This article is about the Roman god, for other meanings see Cupid (disambiguation). ... Jump to: navigation, search In criminal proceedings, a confession is a document in which a suspect admits having committed a crime. ... Jump to: navigation, search Absolution in a liturgical church refers to the pronouncement of Gods forgiveness of sins. ...

As the work's title implies, therefore, the bulk of the work is devoted to Amans' confession. This broadly follows the pattern of Christian confessions of the time. Genius leads Amans through the seven deadly sins, interpreting them in the context of the so-called "courtly love" tradition. He explains the various aspects of each one with exempla, and requires Amans to detail any ways in which he has committed them. The design is that each book of the poem shall be devoted to one sin, and the first six books follow the traditional order for the first six sins: pride, envy, wrath, sloth, avarice, and gluttony. Jump to: navigation, search // History The seven deadly sins, also known as the capital vices or cardinal sins, were first introduced by St. ... Court of Love in Provence in the 14th Century (after a manuscript in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris). ...

At this point, however, Gower breaks his form and digresses: at the end of Book 6 Amans requests that Genius give him a break from the confession and teach him wisdom instead, and Genius responds in Book 7 by discoursing at length on the education given by Aristotle to Alexander the Great. In Gower's hands this becomes a treatise on good kingship, and it is in this book that it is most obvious how the work is intended to answer the royal commission. This notwithstanding, the digression, and the consequent flaw in an otherwise strict plan, is the most frequently criticised aspect of the poem's structure (see e.g. Pearsall 1966:476). Jump to: navigation, search Aristotle, marble copy of bronze by Lysippos. ... Jump to: navigation, search Alexander the Great fighting the Persian king Darius (Pompeii mosaic, from a 3rd century BC original Greek painting, now lost). ...

Book 8 returns to the confession. According to the traditional system, the final sin should be lechery, but since this can hardly be considered a sin against Venus, the topic of the final book is narrowed to the single perversion of incest. Though this is one sin Amans is innocent of, Genius contrives to fill a book nonetheless by telling the longest and best-known story in the Confessio, namely Apollonius of Tyre (VIII.271–2008). Jump to: navigation, search Apollonius of Tyre is a medieval play and story named after the storys main character. ...

The tales

The treatment given to individual stories varies widely. The Apollonius is nearly 2,000 lines long, but at the other extreme, the distinction between tale and allusion is hard to define; for example, summaries of the story of Troilus and Criseide appear in three places (II.2456–2458, IV.7597–7602, VIII.2531–2535), but none can really be described as a "tale". It follows that it is hard to produce a definite figure for the number of tales in the Confessio, since the line between allusion and tale is hard to define. Even excluding the very shortest, however, there are over 100 individual stories (Macaulay 1908), making them more numerous than the strict 100 of the Decameron, and much more so than the Canterbury Tales or the Legend of Good Women. The Decameron is a collection of novellas that was finished by Giovanni Boccaccio in 1353. ... Jump to: navigation, search Canterbury Tales Woodcut 1484 The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the rest in verse). ... The Legend of Good Women is a poem in the form of a dream vision by Geoffrey Chaucer. ...

None of Gower's tales is original. The source he relies on most is Ovid, whose Metamorphoses was ever a popular source of exempla; others include the Bible and various other classical and medieval writers, of whom Macaulay (1908) lists Valerius Maximus, Statius, Benoît de Sainte-Maure, Guido delle Colonne, Godfrey of Viterbo, Brunetto Latini, Nicholas Trivet, the Romans des sept sages, the Vita Barlaam et Josaphat, and the Historia Alexandri Magni. Jump to: navigation, search Engraved frontispiece of George Sandyss 1632 London edition of Publius Ovidius Naso (Sulmona, March 20, 43 BC â€“ Tomis, now Constanta AD 17) Roman poet known to the English-speaking world as Ovid, wrote on topics of love, abandoned women, and mythological transformations. ... Cover of George Sandyss 1632 edition of The Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid is a poem in 15 books that describes the creation and history of the world in terms of Greek and Roman mythology. ... Valerius Maximus was a Latin writer and author of a collection of historical anecdotes. ... Publius Papinius Statius, (c. ... Benoît de Sainte-Maure (1154 - 1173) was a twelth century French poet and trouvere. ... Jump to: navigation, search Godfrey of Viterbo (ca. ... Brunetto Latini (c. ... Jump to: navigation, search Nicholas Trivet (or Trevet), (c. ... Jump to: navigation, search The Seven Wise Masters is a cycle of stories of Oriental origin. ...

The best-known tales are those that have analogues in other English writers, since these are often studied for comparison. These include the Apollonius, which served as a source for the Shakespearean Pericles, and the tales shared with Chaucer, such as the tales of Constance (II.587–1603, also told by the Man of Law) and Florent (I.1407–1875, also told by the Wife of Bath). Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Pericles, Prince of Tyre is a play written partly by William Shakespeare and included in modern editions of his collected plays. ... The Man of Laws Tale is the fifth of the Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer (1387). ... The Wife of Baths Tale is a tale from Geoffrey Chaucers The Canterbury Tales. ...

Reception

The Confessio was apparently popular in its own time; its 49 surviving manuscripts suggest a popularity about halfway between Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (80 copies) and Troilus and Criseyde (16 copies). Nonetheless, Gower, perhaps more than any poet of his period, has suffered through his close association with Chaucer, who as the preeminent maker of the English middle ages overshadows his peers in the same way that Shakespeare dominates the turn of the 17th century. And despite this apparent popularity, critical reactions to the work have often been unfavourable. Jump to: navigation, search Canterbury Tales Woodcut 1484 The Canterbury Tales is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century (two of them in prose, the rest in verse). ... Troilus and Criseyde is Geoffrey Chaucers poem in rhyme royal re-telling the tragic love story of Troilus, a Trojan prince, and Criseyde. ...

The first known criticism is an apparent reference in Chaucer's 'Man of Law's Prologue': the eponymous Man, praising Chaucer, observes that The Man of Laws Tale is the fifth of the Canterbury Tales, by Geoffrey Chaucer (1387). ...

              no word ne writeth he

Of thilke wikke ensample of Canacee

That loved hir owene brother synfully—

Of swiche cursed stories I say fy!—

Or ellis of Tyro Appollonius,

How that the cursed kyng Antiochus

Birafte his doghter of hir maydenhede,

That is so horrible a tale for to rede

(Canterbury Tales, II.77–84: Bradley et al. 1988)

Both these examples are references to the Confessio (Canace is III.143–336), and it has sometimes been thought that this passage was the direct cause of the removal of the dedication to Chaucer from the later editions of the work (see "Textual History" above). It should be noted that this veiled criticism of the Confessio's immoral stories is not necessarily inconsistent with Chaucer's famous dubbing of his friend "Moral Gower"; that passage, in Chaucer's Troilus, was likely written before Gower even began the Confessio.

Later generations have been equally unkind. The influential assessment of Puttenham (1589:50) found Gower's English verse inadequate in every respect: George Puttenham (d. ...

Gower [...] had nothing in him highly to be commended, for his verse was homely and without good measure, his wordes strained much deale out of the French writers, his ryme wrested, and in his inuentions small subtilitie: the applications of his moralities are the best in him, and yet those many times very grossely bestowed, neither doth the substance of his workes sufficiently aunswere the subtiltie of his titles.

By the 19th century, the Confessio was regarded by some as an established "monument of dulness and pedantry" (quoted by Coffman 1945:52). While Macaulay (1901, 1908) was cautiously appreciative, his contemporary Crawshaw (1907:61) attributed to the work "a certain nervelessness or lack of vigor, and a fatal inability to understand when he had said enough". Even C.S. Lewis, who has been quoted above admiring the style of the work, was unconvinced by its structure, describing the epilogue as "a long and unsuccessful coda" (Lewis 1936:222).

Yet Gower has also been given his share of appreciation. A 15th-century treatise printed by Caxton describes "his bookes, called Confessionalle" as Jump to: navigation, search William Caxton (c. ...

Ful of sentence / set ful fructuosly

That hym to rede / shal gyue you corage

He is so ful of fruyt, sentence and langage

(Book of Curtesye, 327–329: Furnivall 1868)

In some cases he is praised and damned at once; Jonson (1640) considers him dangerously attractive, and liable to damage young writers who might be tempted to imitate his style: Benjamin Jonson (June 11, 1572 – August 6, 1637) was an English Renaissance dramatist, poet and actor. ...

...beware of letting them taste Gower, or Chaucer at first, lest falling too much in love with Antiquity, and not apprehending the weight, they grow rough and barren in language onely

Peck (2000) manages to read this as unambiguous praise. And even the structure of his work has been declared perfect by some: Coffman (1945:58) argues that

[it] has a large integrity and unity based on a defense of [Gower's] ethical scheme for the universe . . . Gower tells in the Prologue exactly what he is going to do. He does it well. It is worth doing. And he recapitulates in the Epilogue.

Watt (2003:11) sums up the divided critical reactions as "reflecting . . . the complexity of both the poem itself, which invites conflicting interpretations and contradictory reactions, and its textual history".

Legacy

While Gower's work has generally been as well-known as the poetry of Chaucer, then, and was indeed printed alongside them by Caxton and joined them in the canon of English literature, it was Chaucer's works which became the model for future poets, and the legacy of the Confessio has suffered as a result. It is hard to find works that show signs of direct influence: the only clear example is the Shakespearean Pericles, and there the influence is conscious borrowing, in the use of Gower's characteristic octosyllabic line for the character of Gower himself. Pericles, Prince of Tyre is a play written partly by William Shakespeare and included in modern editions of his collected plays. ...

While not of immense importance as a source for later works, however, the Confessio is nonetheless significant in its own right as as one of the earliest poems written in a form of English that is clearly recognisable as a direct precursor to the modern standard, and, above all, as one of the handful of works that established the foundations of literary prestige on which modern English literature is built.

References

Editions

• Macaulay, G.C., ed (1901). The Works of John Gower. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Peck, Russell A., ed (2000, 2003, 2005). Confessio Amantis. Kalamazoo: Medieval Institute Publications.

Criticism

• Burrow, J.A. (1971). Ricardian Poetry. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
• Coffman, George R. (1945). 'John Gower in His Most Significant Role', in Elizabethan Studies in Honor of George F. Reynolds, pp.52–61. University Press of Colorado.
• Crawshaw, William H. (1907) The making of English literature. Boston: DC Heath and Co.
• Fisher, John (1655) John Gower: Moral Philosopher and Friend of Chaucer. London: Methuen
• Jonson, Ben (1640). Timber: or, Discoveries made vpon Men and Matter. E-text from University of Toronto.
• Lewis, C.S. (1936). The Allegory of Love: a study in medieval tradition. Oxford University Press.
• Macaulay, G.C. (1908). 'The Confessio Amantis', in Ward, A.W., and Waller, A.R., eds. The Cambridge History of English Literature, vol. II The End of the Middle Ages, pp.166–176. Cambridge University Press.
• Nicholson, Peter (Ed.)(1991) Gower's Confessio Amantis: A Critical Anthology, Bury St. Edmonds: B. S. Brewer
• Pearsall, Derek (1966). 'Gower's Narrative Art', in PMLA 81, pp.475–484.
• Puttenham, George (1589). The Arte of English Poesie. E-text from University of Virginia.
• Watt, Diane (2003). Amoral Gower: Language, Sex, and Politics. University of Minnesota Press.

Editions of other texts

• Benson, Larry D. et al. eds (1987). The Riverside Chaucer. Oxford University Press.
• Furnivall, F.J. ed (1868). Caxton's Book of Curtesye, EETS E.S. 3. Oxford University Press.

External links

• Free eBook of Confessio Amantis at Project Gutenberg (based on Macaulay 1901)