Connecticut is known as the “constitution state.” While the origin on this title is uncertain, the nickname is assumed to reference the Fundamental Orders of 1638-39. These Fundamental Orders represent the framework for the first formal government written by a representative body in Connecticut. Connecticut’s government has operated under the direction of four separate documents in its history. After the Fundamental Orders, Connecticut was granted governmental authority by King Charles II of England through the Connecticut Charter of 1662. While these two documents acted to lay the ground work for the state’s government, both lacked essential characteristics of a constitution. The Fundamental Orders and the Connecticut Charter could both be altered simply by a majority vote of the General Assembly. Separate branches of government did not exist during this period, and the General Assembly acted as the supreme authority. A true constitution was not adopted in Connecticut until 1818. Finally, the current state constitution was implemented in 1965. The 1965 constitution absorbed a majority of its 1818 predecessor, but incorporated a handful of important modifications. It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles. ... The Fundamental Orders were adopted by the Connecticut council on January 14, 1639. ... Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was the King of England, King of Scots, and King of Ireland from 30 January 1649 (de jure) or 29 May 1660 (de facto) until his death. ... General assembly could be: The United Nations General Assembly General Assembly (presbyterian church), a supreme governing body, such as the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland See also List of Christian denominations#Presbyterian and Reformed Churches The General Assembly of Unitarian... 1818 (MDCCCXVIII) is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar. ... 1965 (MCMLXV) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1965 calendar). ...

The Fundamental Orders

On January 14, 1639, the Fundamental Orders were adopted in Connecticut. This document has often been referred to as the world’s first written constitution, despite the fact that it does not share many properties of a traditional constitution. At the urging of influential preacher Thomas Hooker, the Connecticut legislative body, or General Court, began secret committee meetings to discuss the drafting of the orders in June of 1638. The Council completed its efforts by the beginning of 1639 and shortly thereafter the Fundamental Orders became the cornerstone of government in Connecticut. Hookers Company reach the Connecticut, publishers: Estes & Lauriat, 1879 Thomas Hooker (July 5, 1586 – July 7, 1647) was a prominent Puritan religious and colonial leader remembered as one of the founders of the Colony of Connecticut. ...

Connecticut's Foundation as a Religious Colony

Connecticut was originally founded by Congregationalists who split away from the Massachusetts colony between 1635 and 1636. The first settlers founded three towns on the Connecticut river in Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford. One of the main purposes of the Fundamental Orders was to formalize the relationship between these three towns. The core foundation of the Fundamental Orders incorporates the ingrained religious background of the colony’s founders. They called for “an orderly and decent government according to God” in attempts to pursue “The liberty and purity of the gospel of our Lord Jesus. ”^[1] Until 1818, the Congregational Church stood as the established church of the state. All Connecticut residents were required to attend church and pay taxes to support the Congregational faith. Anyone belonging to another Christian sect such as Baptist, Episcopal, or Quaker, had to provide documentation signed by a church officer indicating attendance and financial support of their separate church in order to avoid paying taxes to the Congregationalists. Congregational churches are Protestant Christian churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation indepedently and autonomously runs its own affairs. ... The Province of Massachusetts Bay was a crown colony organized October 7, 1691 in North America by the monarch of England. ... Events February 10 - The Académie française in Paris is expanded to become a national academy for the artistic elite. ... Events February 24 - King Christian of Denmark gives an order that all beggars that are able to work must be sent to Brinholmen Island to build ships or as galley rowers March 26 - Utrecht University founded in The Netherlands. ... Windsor may refer to many places and other things. ... Wethersfield is a census-designated place located in Hartford County, Connecticut. ... When used by itself in a sentence, the term Hartford can refer to one of several places in the United States. ... This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... Congregational churches are Protestant Christian churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. ... In English history, the Established Church is the Church of England, the church which is established by the Government, supported by it, and of which the monarch is the titular head; until 1920 it also held the same position in Wales. ... A state is a political association with effective dominion over a geographic area. ... Baptist is a term describing a tradition within Christianity and may also refer to individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. ... The word episcopal is derived from the Greek επίσκοπος, transliterated epískopos, which literally means overseer; the word, however, is used in religious contexts to refer to a bishop. ... The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, or Friends, is a religious community founded in England in the 17th century. ...

Voting Rights

Voting rights were limited under the Fundamental Orders. All Caucasian males at least twenty-one years of age could become a freeman, or a voter, if he met certain property qualifications. In order to vote, the citizen must have owned real estate assessed at a yearly rental value of 40 shillings ($7.00) or owned taxable property assessed at 40 pounds ($134). Since cattle were the only personal property assessable at this time, voting rights were practically restricted to land owners. African-Americans could not constitutionally vote in Connecticut until 1865, when a decision from the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors secured their right to vote. Women could not vote until the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed in 1920. Voting rights refers to the right of a person to vote in an election. ... Look up Caucasian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Real estate is a legal term that encompasses land along with anything permanently affixed to the land, such as buildings. ... The shilling was a British coin first issued in 1548 for Henry VIII, although arguably the testoon issued about 1487 for Henry VII was the first shilling. ... Officially the pound is the name for at least three different units of mass: The pound (avoirdupois). ... Binomial name Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758 Cattle (often called cows in vernacular and contemporary usage, or kye as the Scots plural of cou) are domesticated ungulates, a member of the subfamily Bovinae of the family Bovidae. ... Languages Predominantly American English Religions Predominantly Christianity and Islam Related ethnic groups Sub-Saharan Africans and other African groups, some with Native American groups. ... 1865 (MDCCCLXV) is a common year starting on Sunday. ... Amendment XIX in the National Archives Amendment XIX (the Nineteenth Amendment) to the United States Constitution provides that neither the individual states of the United States nor its federal government may deny a citizen the right to vote because of the citizens sex. ... 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ...

Separation of Powers from 1639-1818

Prior to the implementation of the first official constitution in 1818, Connecticut’s government had no separation of powers. The legislative body, the General Court, began as a one house legislature that wielded supreme authority. Although the General Court split in 1698 and was renamed the General Assembly, it continued to enjoy dominance over the executive and the judiciary until 1818. After the split, the General Assembly consisted of two houses, the Council and the Assembly. The Council, the more powerful of the two houses, consisted of the ex officio governor and lieutenant governor and twelve elected assistants. The twelve assistants were not selected from particular jurisdictions, but rather represented the state at large. The Council varied in number up to 200 members, with each town sending either one or two representatives. It has been suggested that Balance of powers be merged into this article or section. ... A legislature is a governmental deliberative body with the power to adopt laws. ... The Politics series Politics Portal This box:      In law, the judiciary or judicial is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the sovereign or state, a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. ... This page includes English translations of several Latin phrases and abbreviations such as . ... The term jurisdiction has more than one sense. ...

Aside from an automatic position on the Council, the position of governor was highly symbolic. The executive had no power of pardon and no ability to veto bills passed by the General Assembly. Under the Fundamental Orders, the maximum term for the governor was two years and he could not succeed himself. For many years, John Haynes and Edward Hopkins took turns with the position, each serving a two year term and then rotating back to the role of lieutenant governor. The primary responsibilities of the governor were as an official statesman and a member of the legislature. Before the split into two houses, the governor acted as the moderator of the General Court. Afterwards, he held the spot on the Council. The impotence of the governor was subject to the important exception of the Revolutionary War, during which time his position as commander-in-chief of the state militia rendered the office extremely importance. This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Gov. ... Cnwb 23:54, 30 August 2005 (UTC) Categories: Possible copyright violations ... The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known as the American War of Independence, was a war fought primarily between Great Britain and revolutionaries within thirteen of her North American colonies. ... Commander-in-Chief (in NATO-lingo often C-in-C or CINC pronounced sink) is the commander of all the military forces within a particular region or of all the military forces of a state. ... Lexington Minuteman representing militia minuteman John Parker. ...

Perhaps the least influential branch of government under the Fundamental Orders was the judiciary. Until 1818, the legislative branch was the court of final resort in the state, holding appellate jurisdiction over all lower courts. If a litigant was dissatisfied with the court’s decision, he simply had to go to the legislature to request review. This often lead to circumstances where a representative or assistant sat in review of a case in which he was personally interested, either as an attorney, litigant, or friend of one of the parties. When it became too burdensome for the entire assembly to handle appeals, the Supreme Court of Errors was created in 1784. Instead of being comprised of the entire assembly, only the members of the Council sat as the Supreme Court of Errors. This change failed to alleviate many of the conflict of interest problems inherent in the appellate process. The Politics series Politics Portal This box:      In law, the judiciary or judicial is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the sovereign or state, a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. ... The appellate jurisdiction refers to matters which a court can hear after being ruled on by another court. ...

Under political pressure, the General Assembly changed the makeup of the Supreme Court of Errors in 1806. Members of the Council no longer sat on the court. Instead, the nine Superior Court judges acted as the Supreme Court of Errors when all of them sat together. While this created a judicial body, the General Assembly still retained the power to reverse decisions of the court. It also resulted in the constant situation of a Superior Court judge sitting in review of a case he had presided over at the trial level. In law, and more specifically, in the Anglo-American common law legal tradition, a superior court is a court of general jurisdiction over all, or major, civil and criminal cases. ...

The most infamous example of legislative interference with the courts occurred in 1815. In that year, Peter Lung was convicted of murder and subsequently sentenced to death. After Lung filed a petition with the General Assembly, his conviction was overturned. It is believed that Mr. Lung’s political influence largely contributed to his conviction’s reversal by the legislature. Upon retrial, the court promptly convicted and executed Mr. Lung. Lung’s Case outraged all Connecticut judges, most notably Chief Justice Zephaniah Swift, who spoke out for judicial independence in a pamphlet the following year. Establishment of an independent judiciary became one of the central rallying cries in support of a new constitution.

The Connecticut Charter of 1662

In 1660, King Charles II reassumed the monarchy in England, effectively ending the period of the English revolution. Since Connecticut had never been officially recognized as a colony by the crown, the General Court determined that the independence of Connecticut must be legitimized by London. Connecticut’s governor, John Winthrop, Jr., was sent as an emissary to negotiate with the English government. John Winthrop set sail for England on July 23, 1661. He proved successful in his mission, and the English attorney general approved a bill for incorporation of the Connecticut Charter. After being officially sealed and registered, the document was returned to Connecticut and adopted by the General Court on October 9, 1662. Motto (French) God and my right Anthem God Save the King (Queen) England() – on the European continent() – in the United Kingdom() Capital (and largest city) London (de facto) Official languages English (de facto) Government Constitutional monarchy  -  Queen Queen Elizabeth II  -  Prime Minister Tony Blair MP Unification  -  by Athelstan 967  Area... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ... John Winthrop (February 12, 1606-April 5, 1676), generally known as John Winthrop the Younger, was governor of Connecticut. ...

The Connecticut Charter displaced the Fundamental Orders to become the governing authority for the colony. Its practical effect on the government however, was minimal and Connecticut continued to operate much as it had under the Fundamental Orders. The Charter did however, incorporate a few noteworthy changes. All colonials in Connecticut were given “all liberties and immunities” of the realm of England. The governor was granted the additional power of the authority to convene a session of the General Court. Freemen were stripped of this ability. The most surprising aspect of the Charter concerned the geographical boundaries of Connecticut. The colony’s borders were to be Narragansett Bay on the east and Massachusetts on the north. Of greater significance however, was Connecticut’s southwestern boundary which expanded to the “South Sea on the West.” While Connecticut’s borders never approached this limitation, the Charter placed the separate territory of New Haven squarely within Connecticut’s jurisdiction. It is believed that this expansion by Charles II was quite deliberate. Several “regicide” judges who sentenced Charles I of England to death had subsequently sought refuge in New Haven, and Charles II may have been exacting revenge upon New Haven. After a brief dispute, New Haven decided to voluntarily join Connecticut in 1665. Narragansett Bay, shown in pink. ... This article is about the U.S. State. ... This article is about the city in Connecticut. ... The broad definition of regicide is the deliberate killing of a king, or the person responsible for it. ... Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of England, King of Scotland, and King of Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. ...

The Story of the Charter Oak

For one brief period in Connecticut history, neither the authority of the Fundamental Orders, the Charter, or a constitution governed the state. Edmund Andros was appointed governor of New York in 1675, and promptly demanded that Connecticut surrender its charter and fall under his authority. Connecticut refused to submit and Andros lay dormant until 1686, when he served a writ on the governor, again demanding the surrender of the charter. By October 31, 1687, Andros decided to take matters into his own hands, arriving in Hartford with a band of soldiers. Sir Edmund Andros Sir Edmund Andros (December 6, 1637 - February 24, 1714), was an early colonial governor in North America, and head of the short-lived Dominion of New England. ... NY redirects here. ... In law, a writ is a formal written order issued by a body with administrative or judicial jurisdiction. ... When used by itself in a sentence, the term Hartford can refer to one of several places in the United States. ...

While the historical accuracy of the story is somewhat uncertain, legend has it that Andros meet with the leaders of the colony one night at the meetinghouse where the charter was to be relinquished. With the Charter lying on a table, colonists blew out the candles throwing the shadow of darkness over the room. When the lights were reignited, the Charter had vanished. Joseph Wadsworth absconded with the document and hid it in an oak tree on the Wyllys estate. This tree thereafter became known as the Charter Oak, a famous landmark in Connecticut. While the accuracy of this tale has never been confirmed, one thing is for certain: Edmund Andros never got his hands on the Charter. The Charter Oak on the Connecticut quarter The Charter Oak was an unusually large white oak tree growing, from around the 12th or 13th century until 1856, on what the English colonists named Wyllys Hill, in Hartford, Connecticut, USA. // Early history The Dutch explorer Adrian (or Adriaen) Block described, in...

Despite this accomplishment, Andros briefly succeeded in forcing Connecticut to succumb to his rule. The General Court of Connecticut declared itself dissolved. Andros’s reign ended in 1688. The Glorious Revolution took place in England in November of that year, and James II of England was overthrown in favor of William and Mary of England. Andros was deposed from power shortly thereafter. The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689), also known as the bloodless revolution, is an event in which the Stuart king James II (James VII of Scotland) was removed from his thrones of England, Scotland and Ireland, and replaced by William of the House of Orange and his wife and joint sovereign... James II of England/VII of Scotland (14 October 1633 – 16 September 1701) became King of Scots, King of England, and King of Ireland on 6 February 1685, and Duke of Normandy on 31 December 1660. ... King and Queen of England: William III and Mary II. William and Mary ruled together as husband and wife. ...

Connecticut was left with several options of how to restart its government. Some advocated for direct ties to the crown with a royal government. Others lobbied for the drafting of a completely new charter. Ultimately, Connecticut opted to return to the status quo. The government under the Charter was reinstated, including the reinsertion of all leaders previously in place before the interruption. In May of 1689, the General Court issued a declaration that, “all the laws of this colony formerly made, according to the Charter, and Courts constituted in this colony for administration of justice as they were before the late interruption, shall be of full force and virtue for the future…” After reaching this conclusion, the colony quickly petitioned the newly installed monarchy for approval of their return to operation under the Charter. In the mean time, Benjamin Fletcher, the new governor of New York, attempted to claim military authority over Connecticut. Fitz John Wintrop, John Winthrop, Jr.’s son, went as the emissary to England much like his father had more than thirty years earlier in 1661. Also like his father, Fitz Wintrop proved successful in his mission. The Attorney General and Solicitor General reported to King William that the charter remained valid, and the king ratified this report on April 19, 1694. This represented the end of serious challenges to Connecticut’s sovereignty. Benjamin Fletcher (1640-1703) was colonial governor of New York from 1692 to 1697. ... King William may refer to: William I of England William II of England William III of England William IV of the United Kingdom King William County, Virginia Wilhelm I of Germany See also: William King This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might...

For the rest of its colonial history, Connecticut dealt with the Charter much the same as it had the Fundamental Orders. The Charter could be altered simply by a majority vote from the General Assembly. This was particularly remarkable, because the Charter had been granted by the signature of the king, yet London was never consulted about alterations of the Charter. This suggests that Connecticut primarily sought authorization for self-government from the king, but that it did not expect England to supervise the evolution of its government.

Connecticut Governance After the Revolution

The General Assembly formally approved the Declaration of Independence with the other colonies. In its resolution the legislature declared that Connecticut’s government, “shall continue to be as established by Charter received from Charles the second, King of England, so far as an adherence to the same will be consistent with an absolute independence of this State on the Crown of Great Britain…” Even in independence Connecticut wished to remain governed by King Charles’ Charter. While eleven of the thirteen colonies had drafted state constitutions by 1786, Connecticut elected to continue operation under the Charter. ^[2] Connecticut forged ahead under this scheme of government until 1818, when the first true constitution was adopted. A declaration of independence is an assertion of the independence of an aspiring state or states. ... In 1775, the British claimed authority over the red and pink areas on this map and Spain ruled the orange. ...

The Constitution of 1818

In the spring of 1818, the General Assembly made a significant change to voting rights in Connecticut. All white males who paid taxes or served in the militia were deemed eligible to vote. This eliminated the previous property requirements that had grown onerous as more of the population moved to jobs in commerce or manufacturing rather than agriculture. Even more significantly, the General Assembly called for a constitutional convention that year. Voting rights refers to the right of a person to vote in an election. ... -1... Lexington Minuteman representing militia minuteman John Parker. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Manufacturing, a branch of industry, is the application of tools and a processing medium to the transformation of raw materials into finished goods for sale. ...

One of the most important ballots cast in the General Assembly was the vote on whether only a simple majority of the legislature would be required to approve whatever constitution was ultimately drafted. Many favored requiring anywhere from a sixty to eighty percent majority for adoption of a new government. Ultimately, those in favor of a simple majority carried the vote 81-80, a resolution vital to the future success of the constitution. Each town sent a number of delegates equal to the number of representatives held in the Assembly. The convention convened in Hartford on August 26, 1818. As one of the first orders of business, a twenty-four man committee was appointed to prepare a draft constitution. The very next day the committee returned with the Preamble and Bill of Rights. Their speed was not due to ingenuity. The draft was borrowed almost verbatim from the constitution Mississippi created a year earlier in 1817. After the remainder of the constitution was drafted, the convention approved the document by a two to one margin on September 16, 1818. The voters were given three weeks to consider the proposed constitution. On October 5, a vote was held. A majority cast their ballots in favor of the constitution, with the resolution passing 13,918 to 12,364. The ultimate vote proved the importance of requiring only a simple majority’s approval, for a sixty or eighty percent requirement would not have been met. A simple majority is the most common requirement in voting for a measure to pass, especially in deliberative bodies and small organizations. ... A legislature is a type of representative deliberative assembly with the power to adopt laws. ... A delegate is an individual (or a member of a group called a delegation) who represents the interests of a larger organization (e. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

As a result of the new constitution, the Congregational Church was finally disestablished, although Christianity remained the constitutionally favored religion. Newly received voting rights were also solidified, as the convention provided constitutional rights to vote for all white males who paid taxes or had served in the militia. With the 1818 Constitution, separation of powers was finally brought to Connecticut government. An independent judiciary was approved. Both Supreme and Superior Court judges were now given life tenure to the age of seventy (this was changed to eight years in 1856). The Supreme Court of Errors was reduced to five judges, with each judge retaining a role as a Superior Court judge. Decisions of the court could no longer be appealed to the legislature. Congregational churches are Protestant Christian churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. ...

The constitution did not significantly change the role of the executive, and the branch remained relatively weak. The executive did however, became a constitutional and independent part of the government. The governor was no longer granted a seat in the legislature. He was granted the new power of veto, but any of his vetos could be overruled by a simple majority vote from the Assembly. This made the veto power essentially useless since any bill would have to pass both houses by a majority anyway. The General Assembly retained the authority to nominate judges under the new constitution. This was not changed until 1880, when nomination powers were transferred to the governor. A simple majority is the most common requirement in voting for a measure to pass, especially in deliberative bodies and small organizations. ... The word veto comes from Latin and literally means I forbid. ... Nomination is part of the process of selecting a candidate for either election to an office, or the bestowing of an honor or award. ...

The legislative branch also experienced a few changes. The Council was renamed the Senate. By constitutional mandate, half the legislative sessions were to take place in Hartford with the other half convening in New Haven. Surprisingly, the method in which towns were assigned a number of representatives was left unchanged. Each town predating the constitution retained two representatives in the lower house regardless of population, with the exception of several newer towns which were granted one vote. Although many amendments were added over the years, the Constitution of 1818 remained in operation until 1965. There was also a Constitution of 1955, but it merely incorporated prior amendments into the main body of the constitution. When used by itself in a sentence, the term Hartford can refer to one of several places in the United States. ... This article is about the city in Connecticut. ...

The Constitution of 1965

Connecticut currently operates under the Constitution passed in 1965. The primary purpose of the 1965 constitutional convention was reapportionment of the representatives in the lower legislative house. Assigning each town one or two representatives had resulted in grossly disproportional representation. Small rural towns enjoyed equal representation with large urban communities. Apart from this major change, a majority of the language from the 1818 Constitution was reaffirmed verbatim or almost verbatim in 1965. Non-Christians were finally granted official freedom of religion in 1965, although a law had been passed by the legislature in 1843 which recognized Jews’ right to worship. The reference to Christianity from the earlier constitution was deleted. After 1965, the Supreme Court of Errors’ title was changed to the Connecticut Supreme Court. The executive obtained a significant power under the new constitution. The governor still does not enjoy the privilege of pardon, but the office was granted a more significant power of veto under the latest constitution. Instead of being able to be overridden by a second majority vote, the legislature now must muster two thirds support in both houses to defeat a veto. Also of note, the 1965 Constitution includes a constitutional right to free public education. In addition, the most recent constitution has provided a mechanism to convene future constitutional conventions if necessary. It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles. ... Sign in a rural area in Dalarna, Sweden Qichun, a rural town in Hubei province, China An artists rendering of an aerial view of the Maryland countryside: Jane Frank (Jane Schenthal Frank, 1918-1986), Aerial Series: Ploughed Fields, Maryland, 1974, acrylic and mixed materials on apertured double canvas, 52... Look up urban in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... The Connecticut Supreme Court is in most respects a typical American state supreme court. ... This article does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... // Public education is education mandated for the children of the general public by the government, whether national, regional, or local, provided by an institution of civil government, and paid for, in whole or in part, by taxes. ...

The Constitution of 1965 remains the supreme authority in Connecticut today. It represents the fourth distinct document in state history laying out the mechanics for its form of government. Connecticut is known as the Constitution State because of its early adoption of the Fundamental Orders in 1639, thought to be the earliest document of its kind in western civilization. Since that time Connecticut has undergone several constitutional crises and alterations, which have lead the state to its present state of affairs today. For alternative meanings for The West in the United States, see the U.S. West and American West. ...

Footnotes

1. ^ The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1639).
2. ^ Rhode Island was the only other colony not to draft a constitution by this point.

This article is about the U.S. State. ...

References

Articles

[1] Henry S. Cohn, Connecticut Constitutional History, 1636-1776 (August 1988).

[2] Wesley H. Horton, Connecticut Constitutional History, 1776-1988 (August 1988).

Books

Wesley W. Horton, The Connecticut State Constitution (Greenwood Press) (1993).

Jarvis Means Morse, A Neglected Period of Connecticut's History 1818-1850 (Octagon Books 1978) (1933).

Richard J. Purcell, Connecticut in Transition: 1775-1818, (Wesleyan University Press 1963) (11918).

David M. Roth and Freeman Meyer, From Revolution to Constitution, Connecticut 1763-1818 (The Pequot Press 1975).

Constitutions

[3] Connecticut Constitution of 1965

[4] Connecticut Constitution of 1818

[5] Connecticut Charter of 1662

[6] The Fundamental Orders of Connecticut

[7] The Mississippi Constitution of 1817