A conspiracy theory attributes the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events (usually political, social or historical events), or the concealment of such causes from public knowledge, to a secret, and often deceptive plot by a group of powerful or influential people or organizations. Many conspiracy theories imply that major events in history have been dominated by conspirators who manipulate political happenings from behind the scenes. A conspiracy theory attempts to explain the ultimate cause of an event or chain of events as a secret plot by a covert alliance. ... Politics is the process by which decisions are made within groups. ... Social refers to human society or its organization. ... History is often used as a generic term for information about the past, such as in geologic history of the Earth. When used as the name of a field of study, history refers to the study and interpretation of the record of human societies. ... General public redirects here. ... Secrecy is the practice of sharing information among a group of people, which can be as small as one person, while hiding it from others. ... This article or section includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ...

Terminology

The term "conspiracy theory" may be a neutral descriptor for any conspiracy claim. To conspire means "to join in a secret agreement to do an unlawful or wrongful act or to use such means to accomplish a lawful end."^[1] However, conspiracy theory is also used to indicate a narrative genre that includes a broad selection of (not necessarily related) arguments for the existence of grand conspiracies, any of which might have far-reaching social and political implications if true.^{[citation needed]} In a political sense, conspiracy refers to a group of persons united in the goal of usurping or overthrowing an established political power. ... A narrative is a construct created in a suitable medium (speech, writing, images) that describes a sequence of fictional or non-fictional events. ... For the gay mens lifestyle magazine, see Genre (magazine). ...

The first recorded use of the phrase "conspiracy theory" dates to the year 1909. Originally it was a neutral term; during the political upheaval of the 1960s the term acquired its current derogatory sense. ^[2] It entered the supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary as late as 1997.^[3] The Oxford English Dictionary print set The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is a dictionary published by the Oxford University Press (OUP), and is the most successful dictionary of the English language, (not to be confused with the one-volume Oxford Dictionary of English, formerly New Oxford Dictionary of English, of...

In an early essay by Daniel Pipes "adapted from a study prepared for the CIA", Pipes attempts to pin down what beliefs distinguish 'the conspiracy mentality' from 'more conventional patterns of thought': appearances deceive; conspiracies drive history; nothing is haphazard; the enemy always gains; power, fame, money, and sex account for all ^[4]. Daniel Pipes in Copenhagen Daniel Pipes (born September 9, 1949) is an American historian and analyst who specializes in the Middle East. ...

The term "conspiracy theory" is frequently used by mainstream scholars and in popular culture to identify a type of folklore similar to an urban legend, especially an explanatory narrative which is constructed with particular methodological flaws.^[5] The term is also used pejoratively to dismiss claims that are alleged by critics to be misconceived, paranoid, unfounded, outlandish, irrational, or otherwise unworthy of serious consideration. Popular culture (or pop culture) is the widespread cultural elements in any given society that are perpetuated through that societys vernacular language or lingua franca. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For other uses, see Urban legend (disambiguation). ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with pejoration. ...

Conspiracism

A world view that centrally places conspiracy theories in the unfolding of history is sometimes termed "conspiracism". The historian Richard Hofstadter addressed the role of paranoia and conspiracism throughout American history in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, published in 1964. Bernard Bailyn's classic The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (1967) notes that a similar phenomenon could be found in America during the time preceding the American Revolution.^[6] The term conspiracism was popularized by academic Frank P. Mintz in the 1980s. Academic work in conspiracy theories and conspiracism presents a range of hypotheses as a basis of studying the genre. Among the leading scholars of conspiracism are: Hofstadter, Karl Popper, Michael Barkun, Robert Alan Goldberg, Daniel Pipes, Mark Fenster, Mintz, Carl Sagan, George Johnson, and Gerald Posner. Richard Hofstadter (August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was an American historian and DeWitt Clinton Professor of American History at Columbia University. ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... Pre-Colonial America For details, see the main Pre-Colonial America article. ... The Paranoid Style in American Politics is an essay by the American historian Richard J. Hofstadter, first published in Harpers magazine in November 1964. ... It has been suggested that The Peopling of British North America be merged into this article or section. ... John Trumbulls Declaration of Independence, showing the five-man committee in charge of drafting the Declaration in 1776 as it presents its work to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia The American Revolution refers to the period during the last half of the 18th century in which the Thirteen... Sir Karl Raimund Popper (July 28, 1902 â€“ September 17, 1994) was an Austrian and British[1] philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics. ... Daniel Pipes in Copenhagen Daniel Pipes (born September 9, 1949) is an American historian and analyst who specializes in the Middle East. ... Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer and astrochemist and a highly successful popularizer of astronomy, astrophysics, and other natural sciences. ... George Johnson is a science writer working from Santa Fe, New Mexico. ... Gerald Posner and his wife Trisha. ...

According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes: "belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history":^[7]

"Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. As such, conspiracy theories do not typify a particular epoch or ideology".^[8]

Throughout human history, political and economic leaders genuinely have been the cause of enormous amounts of death and misery, and they sometimes have engaged in conspiracies while at the same time promoting conspiracy theories about their targets. Hitler and Stalin would be merely the most prominent examples; there have been numerous others.^[9] In some cases there have been claims dismissed as conspiracy theories that later proved to have some basis in facts. (for examples, see "Conspiracies vs. conspiracy theories")^[10][11] The idea that history itself is controlled by large long-standing conspiracies is rejected by historian Bruce Cumings: Hitler redirects here. ... Josef Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili (Georgian: , Ioseb Besarionis Dze Jughashvili; Russian: , Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili) (December 18 [O.S. December 6] 1878[1] – March 5, 1953), better known by his adopted name, Joseph Stalin (alternatively transliterated Josef Stalin), was General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Unions Central Committee from... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Conspiracy theory. ...

"But if conspiracies exist, they rarely move history; they make a difference at the margins from time to time, but with the unforeseen consequences of a logic outside the control of their authors: and this is what is wrong with 'conspiracy theory.' History is moved by the broad forces and large structures of human collectivities."^[12]

The term conspiracism is used in the work of Michael Kelly, Chip Berlet, and Matthew N. Lyons. Michael Kelly (1957-2003) was an editor-at-large of the Atlantic Monthly and a columnist for the Washington Post. ... John Foster Chip Berlet (born November 22, 1949) is an American photographer and researcher specializing in the study of right-wing movements in the United States, particularly the religious right, white supremacists, homophobic groups, and paramilitary organizations. ...

According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm".^[13]

Criticism of conspiracy theories

Conspiracy theories are the subject of broad critique by academics, politicians, and the media. Plato is credited with the inception of academia: the body of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations. ... A politician is an individual involved in politics, sometimes this may include political scientists. ...

Testing the validity of conspiracy theories

Perhaps the most contentious aspect of a conspiracy theory is the problem of settling a particular theory's truth to the satisfaction of both its proponents and its opponents. Particular accusations of conspiracy vary widely in their plausibility, but some common standards for assessing their likely truth value may be applied in each case^{[citation needed]}:

• Occam's razor - is the alternative story more complicated and therefore less probable than the mainstream story?
• Logic - Do the proofs offered follow the rules of logic, or do they employ Fallacies of logic?
• Methodology - are the proofs offered for the argument well constructed, i.e., using sound methodology? Is there any clear standard to determine what evidence would prove or disprove the theory?
• Whistleblowers - how many people — and what kind — have to be loyal conspirators?
• Falsifiability - Is it possible to demonstrate that specific claims of the theory are true, or are they "unfalseifiable"?

The US academic Noam Chomsky contrasts conspiracy theory as more or less the opposite of institutional analysis, which focuses mostly on the public, long-term behaviour of publicly known institutions, as recorded in, e.g. scholarly documents or mainstream media reports, rather than secretive coalitions of individuals.^[14][15] For the House television show episode, see Occams Razor (House episode). ... Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος logos; meaning word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle) is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. ... Logic (from Classical Greek λόγος logos; meaning word, thought, idea, argument, account, reason, or principle) is the study of the principles and criteria of valid inference and demonstration. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Fallacy. ... Meethodology is defined as the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, and postulates employed by a discipline, the systematic study of methods that are, can be, or have been applied within a discipline or a particular procedure or set of procedures [1]. It should be noted that methodology is... Poster in support of whistleblower legislation A whistleblower is an employee, former employee, or member of an organization, especially a business or government agency, who reports misconduct to people or entities that have the power and presumed willingness to take corrective action. ... Falsifiability (or refutability or testability) is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment. ... For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United States (disambiguation) Motto In God We Trust(since 1956) (From Many, One; Latin, traditional) Anthem The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City National language English (de facto)1 Demonym American... Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, political activist, author and lecturer. ... Institutional analysis is that part of the social sciences which studies how institutions, i. ... Mass media is the term used to denote, as a class, that section of the media specifically conceived and designed to reach a very large audience (typically at least as large as the whole population of a nation state). ...

The "Rationality Theorem"

One criticism of conspiracy theories is that they rely on a certain worldview which may or may not be correct. Graham Allison, a political scientist, developed this argument in his book, Essence of Decision, and informally named it the "rationality theorem". Graham T. Allison is a professor at Harvard University. ... See also: Political Science Notable political scientists Kenneth Arrow - Nobel Memorial Prize winning economist who published influential paper on his widely cited Arrows Impossibility Theorem Robert Axelrod Duncan Black - Responsible for unearthing the work of many early political scientists, including Charles Dodgson Jean-Charles de Borda - 18th century mathematician... Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis is an analysis, by political scientist Graham T. Allison, of the Cuban Missile Crisis. ... The rationality theorem is a theory introduced by political scientist Graham Allison in his book Essence of Decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis. ...

Basically, Allison argued:

• Many theories - including conspiracy theories - rely on the assumption of rational expectations. Under this assumption, events and decisions are explained by the rational responses of groups and individuals.
• However, Allison pointed out that groups and individuals do not always act in a rational manner.
• Allison argued that by using rationalistic thinking, individuals automatically take a "black box" approach to problems, meaning that they concentrate on data that was available and the results, but failed to consider other factors, such as bureaucracy, misunderstandings, disagreements, etc.
• Finally, Allison argued that rationalistic thinking in general violates the scientific law of falsifiability, as according to the rationality theorem, there exists no event or groups of events that cannot be explained in a rational and purposeful manner.

Although Allison primarily studied the Cuban Missile Crisis, in Essence, he illustrated the rationality theorem by making reference to the Attack on Pearl Harbor, specifically the theory that U.S. decisionmakers must have purposefully allowed the attack to be pulled off. Rational expectations is a theory in economics originally proposed by John F. Muth (1961) and later developed by Robert E. Lucas Jr. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... This article is about the sociological concept. ... Falsifiability (or refutability or testability) is the logical possibility that an assertion can be shown false by an observation or a physical experiment. ... For the video game based on the possible outcomes of this event, see Cuban Missile Crisis: The Aftermath. ... This article is about the actual attack. ...

Allison argued that, for this specific conspiracy theory to hold, analysts must first make the assumption that officials act in a rational manner, and that these officials had full access to all information that indicated the attack was imminent.

However, by examining additional internal evidence, Allison argued that while, from a black-box perspective, the U.S. had enough evidence of the Pearl Harbor attack, a combination of bureaucracy and misunderstandings was the real reason why the attack succeeded. For example, Allison noted that evidence of the upcoming attack was scattered among different governmental departments, and was not immediately combined to create an entire picture. Likewise, some decision makers misinterpreted the data at hand - on December 7, 1941, the base at Pearl Harbor actually was on alert, but the alert was for possible Japanese sabotage, not an all-out aerial attack. is the 341st day of the year (342nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see 1941 (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Sabotage (disambiguation). ...

Controversy

Aside from controversies over the merits of particular conspiracy claims (see catalog below), the general discussion of conspiracy theory is itself a matter of some public contestation. A controversy is a contentious dispute, a disagreement over which parties are actively arguing. ...

Usage

The term "conspiracy theory" is considered by different observers to be a neutral description for a conspiracy claim, a pejorative term used to dismiss such a claim without examination, and a term that can be positively embraced by proponents of such a claim. The term may be used by some for arguments they might not wholly believe but consider radical and exciting. The most widely accepted sense of the term is that which popular culture and academic usage share, certainly having negative implications for a narrative's probable truth value.

Given this popular understanding of the term, it can also be used illegitimately and inappropriately, as a means to dismiss what are in fact substantial and well-evidenced accusations. The legitimacy of each such usage will therefore be a matter of some controversy. Michael Parenti, in his 1996 essay which examines the role of progressive media in the use of the term, "The JFK Assassination II: Conspiracy Phobia On The Left", states, Michael Parenti (born 1933) is an American political scientist, historian, and media critic. ...

"It is an either-or world for those on the Left who harbor an aversion for any kind of conspiracy investigation: either you are a structuralist in your approach to politics or a 'conspiracist' who reduces historical developments to the machinations of secret cabals, thereby causing us to lose sight of the larger systemic forces."^[16]

Certain proponents of conspiracy claims and their supporters argue that the term is entirely illegitimate, and should be considered just as politically manipulative as the Soviet practice of treating political dissidents as clinically insane. In the Soviet Union, psychiatry was used for punitive purposes. ...

But critics of this view claim that the argument bears little weight and that the claim itself serves to expose the paranoia common with conspiracy theorists. A similar complication occurs for terms such as UFO, which literally means "unidentified flying object" but connotes alien spacecraft, a concept also associated with some conspiracy theories, and thus possessing a certain social stigma. Michael Parenti gives an example of the use of the term which underscores the conflict in its use. He states, UFO can mean: Unidentified flying object United Future Organization, a Japanese-Brazilian electronic jazz band UFO, the rock band that previously featured Michael Schenker UFO, the Gerry Anderson TV series United Farmers of Ontario, a political party that formed the government in Ontario from 1919 to 1923 U.F.O... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into UFO. (Discuss) An alien spacecraft is a hypothetic spacecraft originating from extraterrestrials. ... Social stigma is severe social disapproval of personal characteristics or beliefs that are against cultural norms. ...

"In most of its operations, the CIA is by definition a conspiracy, using covert actions and secret plans, many of which are of the most unsavory kind. What are covert operations if not conspiracies? At the same time, the CIA is an institution, a structural part of the national security state. In sum, the agency is an institutionalized conspiracy."^[17]

The term "conspiracy theory" is itself the object of a type of conspiracy theory, which argues that those using the term are manipulating their audience to disregard the topic under discussion, either in a deliberate attempt to conceal the truth, or as dupes of more deliberate conspirators.^{[citation needed]}

When conspiracy theories are offered as official claims (e.g. originating from a governmental authority, such as an intelligence agency) they are not usually considered as conspiracy theories. For example, certain activities of the House Un-American Activities Committee may be considered to have been an official attempt to promote a conspiracy theory, yet its claims are seldom referred to as such.^{[citation needed]} HUAC hearings The House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC or HCUA,[1] 1938–1975) was an investigative committee of the United States House of Representatives. ...

Further difficulties arise from ambiguity regarding the term theory. In popular usage, this term is often used to refer to unfounded or weakly-based speculation, leading to the idea that "It's not a conspiracy theory if it's actually true".^[18] The word theory has a number of distinct meanings in different fields of knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. ...

Proven historical conspiracies

Despite the speculative nature of many conspiracy theories, mainstream world history contains numerous proven conspiracies, some of which were not the subject of any widespread speculation until they were exposed. Historical conspiracies include:

• The Pazzi conspiracy, which included the Pope, of the late 1400s.
• The Main Plot of 1603
• The Bye Plot of 1603
• The Gunpowder Plot of 1605
• The conspiracy of 1865 to assassinate U.S. President Abraham Lincoln and members of his cabinet
• The French government's attempted cover-up following Emile Zola's accusations in the Dreyfus Affair, starting in 1894.
• The 1903 efforts by the Tsar's secret police to foment anti-Semitism by presenting The Protocols of the Elders of Zion as an authentic text.^[19]
• The 1939 Operation Himmler and its Gleiwitz incident
• Operation Mockingbird, from 1948. In 1976, then CIA director George H.W. Bush ordered that paid media recruiting would be prohibited.
• The 1945 Operation Paperclip, the extraction of top Nazi scientists.
• The MKULTRA mind control program, from 1953 to late 1960s
• The 1954 Lavon affair
• The 1962 Operation Northwoods
• The 1969 Manson Family murders
• The 1972 Watergate burglary and cover-up
• The 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack
• The 1987 Iran-Contra Affair
• The 1995 Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway

Some theorists, like Charles Pigden argue that the reality of such conspiracies should caution against any casual dismissal of conspiracy theory. Pigden, in his article "Conspiracy Theories and the Conventional Wisdom" argues that not only do conspiracies occur but that any educated member of society will believe in at least one of them; we are all, in fact, Conspiracy Theorists. Authors and publishers, such as Robert Anton Wilson and Disinfo, use proven conspiracies as evidence of what a secret plot can accomplish. In doing so, they demonstrate that the label "conspiracy theory" does not necessarily indicate that a theory is false. Theories cited in making this case include those listed above as well as: The Pazzi family were Tuscan nobles who had become bankers in Florence in the 14th century. ... The Main Plot (or the treason at Maine -- referring to the traditional province of Maine, near the present Le Mans, France) was a conspiracy by English Catholics, allegedly led by lay Catholic Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham, to remove King James I of England from the English throne, replacing him by... The Bye Plot was a conspiracy by English Catholics to kidnap King James I of England and force him to repeal anti-Catholic legislation. ... A contemporary sketch of the conspirators. ... For other uses, see Abraham Lincoln (disambiguation). ... Émile Zola (IPA: ) (2 April 1840 – 29 September 1902) was an influential French writer, the most important example of the literary school of naturalism, and a major figure in the political liberalization of France and in the exoneration of the falsely accused and convicted Army officer Alfred Dreyfus. ... The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal with anti-Semitic overtones which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s. ... For the 2005 documentary film by Marc Levin, see Protocols of Zion (film). ... The Gleiwitz incident was a staged attack on 31 August, 1939 against the German radio station Sender Gleiwitz in Gleiwitz, Upper Silesia, Germany (since 1945: Gliwice, Republic of Poland) on the eve of World War II in Europe. ... Gliwice Radio Tower. ... Operation Mockingbird is a Central Intelligence Agency operation to influence domestic and foreign media, whose activities were made public during the Church Committee investigation in 1975 (published 1976). ... Order: 41st President Vice President: Dan Quayle Term of office: January 20, 1989 – January 20, 1993 Preceded by: Ronald Reagan Succeeded by: Bill Clinton Date of birth: June 12, 1924 Place of birth: Milton, Massachusetts First Lady: Barbara Pierce Bush Political party: Republican George Herbert Walker Bush, KBE (born June... Operation Paperclip scientists pose together. ... MKULTRA redirects here. ... Mind control (or thought control) has the premise that an outside source can control an individuals thinking, behavior or consciousness (either directly or more subtly). ... The Lavon Affair refers to the scandal over a failed Israeli covert operation in Egypt known as Operation Suzannah, in which Egyptian, American and British-owned targets in Egypt were bombed in the summer of 1954. ... Operation Northwoods memoranda (March 13, 1962). ... Charles Milles Manson (b. ... The Watergate building. ... The 1984 Rajneeshee bioterror attack refers to the salmonella food poisoning of over seven hundred and fifty individuals in Oregon through the contamination of salad bars at ten local restaurants. ... The Iran-Contra affair was a political scandal which was revealed in 1986 as a result of earlier events during the Reagan administration. ... A wanted poster in Japan. ... Robert Anton Wilson Robert Anton Wilson or RAW (January 18, 1932 – January 11, 2007) was a prolific American novelist, essayist, philosopher, psychologist, futurologist, anarchist, and conspiracy theory researcher. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

• the Mafia
• the Business Plot to overthrow the U.S. government led at the time by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1933
• various CIA involvements in overseas coups d'état
• the 1991 Testimony of Nayirah before the US Congress to rally the support of the US public to launch the Gulf War
• the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male
• the General Motors streetcar conspiracy
• the plot by the British Secret Service to destabilize Prime Minister Harold Wilson, among others.^{[citation needed]}
• the plot by some gaullists of the French Secret Service to destabilize future president Georges Pompidou, known as the Markovic affair
• the series of incidents in Italy connected to the so called "strategy of tension"
• Operation Gladio

These arguments also suggest that interested readers do their own research to come to their own conclusions. This particular suggestion is often missing from conspiracy theories that lack merit.^{[citation needed]} This article is about the criminal society. ... The Business Plot, the Plot Against FDR, or the White House Putsch, was an uncovered conspiracy involving several wealthy businessmen to overthrow the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933. ... Franklin Delano Roosevelt (January 30, 1882–April 12, 1945), 32nd President of the United States, the longest-serving holder of the office and the only man to be elected President more than twice, was one of the central figures of 20th century history. ... CIA redirects here. ... Coup redirects here. ... Nurse Nayirah was a creation of PR firm Hill & Knowlton for promoting the 1991 Gulf War. ... The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male[1] also known as the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Pelkola Syphilis Study, Public Health Service Syphilis Study or the Tuskegee Experiments was a clinical study, conducted between 1932 and 1972 in Tuskegee, Alabama, in which 399 (plus 201 control group without... The General Motors streetcar conspiracy refers to a contention that General Motors (GM), acting in conjunction with several other companies and through the National City Lines (NCL) holding company, illegally acquired many streetcar systems in various cities around the United States, dismantled and replaced them with buses for the express... For other persons named Harold Wilson, see Harold Wilson (disambiguation). ... Charles de Gaulle, in his generals uniform Gaullism (French: Gaullisme) is a French political ideology based on the thought and action of Charles de Gaulle. ... Georges Jean Raymond Pompidou (5 July 1911 – 2 April 1974) was President of the French Republic from 1969 until his death in 1974. ... The Markovic affair was a political scandal in France in the late 1960s. ... A strategy of tension (Italian: ) is a way to control and manipulate public opinion using fear, propaganda, disinformation, psychological warfare, agents provocateurs, as well as false flag terrorist actions (including bombings). ... Emblem of Gladio, Italian branch of the NATO stay-behind paramilitary organizations. ...

The argument is often advanced there cannot be a conspiracy without leakers or whistle blowers.^{[citation needed]} Given the success of the British government in getting thousands of people to keep the ULTRA secret -- and thereby ensuring that no reliable history of World War II could be published until the 1970s -- it is apparent that this is not necessarily a reliable indicator. This article is about WW II intelligence material. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000...

Study of conspiracism

Belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy eventually provoked an unprecedented public response directed against the official version of the case as expounded in the Report of the Warren Commission. Kennedy Assassination redirects here. ... John Kennedy and JFK redirect here. ... Warren Commission report cover page The Presidents Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, known unofficially as The Warren Commission, was established on November 29, 1963, by Lyndon B. Johnson to investigate the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963. ...

Psychological origins

According to some psychologists, a person who believes in one conspiracy theory tends to believe in others; a person who does not believe in one conspiracy theory tends not to believe another.^[20] This may be caused by differences in the information upon which parties rely in formulating their conclusions. A psychologist is an expert in psychology, the systematic investigation of the human body, including behavior, cognition, and affect. ...

Psychologists believe that the search for meaningfulness is common in conspiracism and the development of conspiracy theories, and may be powerful enough alone to lead to the first formulating of the idea^{[citation needed]}. Once cognized, confirmation bias and avoidance of cognitive dissonance may reinforce the belief. In a context where a conspiracy theory has become popular within a social group, communal reinforcement may equally play a part. It has been suggested that Myside bias be merged into this article or section. ... Cognitive dissonance is a psychological state that describes the uncomfortable feeling between what one holds to be true and what one knows to be true. ... Communal reinforcement is a social phenomenon in which a concept or idea is repeatedly asserted in a community, regardless of whether sufficient empirical evidence has been presented to support it. ...

Some research carried out at the University of Kent, UK suggests people may be influenced by conspiracy theories without being aware that their attitudes have changed. After reading popular conspiracy theories about the death of Diana, Princess of Wales, participants in this study correctly estimated how much their peers' attitudes had changed, but significantly underestimated how much their own attitudes had changed to become more in favour of the conspiracy theories. The authors conclude that conspiracy theories may therefore have a 'hidden power' to influence people's beliefs.^[21] Affiliations University Alliance Association of Commonwealth Universities European University Association Website http://www. ... The Pont de lAlma tunnel, where Diana was fatally injured. ...

Projection

Some historians have argued that there is an element of psychological projection in conspiracism. This projection, according to the argument, is manifested in the form of attribution of undesirable characteristics of the self to the conspirators. Richard Hofstadter, in his essay The Paranoid Style in American Politics, stated that: In psychology, psychological projection (or projection bias) is a defense mechanism in which one attributes to others one’s own unacceptable or unwanted thoughts or/and emotions. ... Richard Hofstadter (August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was an American historian and DeWitt Clinton Professor of American History at Columbia University. ... The Paranoid Style in American Politics is an essay by the American historian Richard J. Hofstadter, first published in Harpers magazine in November 1964. ...

...it is hard to resist the conclusion that this enemy is on many counts the projection of the self; both the ideal and the unacceptable aspects of the self are attributed to him. The enemy may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship... the Ku Klux Klan imitated Catholicism to the point of donning priestly vestments, developing an elaborate ritual and an equally elaborate hierarchy. The John Birch Society emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation through "front" groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Spokesmen of the various fundamentalist anti-Communist "crusades" openly express their admiration for the dedication and discipline the Communist cause calls forth.

Hofstadter also noted that "sexual freedom" is a vice frequently attributed to the conspiracist's target group, noting that "very often the fantasies of true believers reveal strong sadomasochistic outlets, vividly expressed, for example, in the delight of anti-Masons with the cruelty of Masonic punishments."^[22]

Epistemic bias

It is possible that certain basic human epistemic biases are projected onto the material under scrutiny. According to one study humans apply a 'rule of thumb' by which we expect a significant event to have a significant cause.^[23] The study offered subjects four versions of events, in which a foreign president was (a) successfully assassinated, (b) wounded but survived, (c) survived with wounds but died of a heart attack at a later date, and (d) was unharmed. Subjects were significantly more likely to suspect conspiracy in the case of the 'major events' — in which the president died — than in the other cases, despite all other evidence available to them being equal. Theory of knowledge redirects here: for other uses, see theory of knowledge (disambiguation) Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, knowledge + λόγος, logos) or theory of knowledge is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. ...

Another epistemic 'rule of thumb' that can be misapplied to a mystery involving other humans is cui bono? (who stands to gain?). This sensitivity to the hidden motives of other people might be either an evolved or an encultured feature of human consciousness, but either way it appears to be universal. Cui bono (Good for whom, or Who obtains a benefit) is a latin adage used in criminal investigation. ...

Clinical psychology

For relatively rare individuals, an obsessive compulsion to believe, prove or re-tell a conspiracy theory may indicate one or more of several well-understood psychological conditions, and other hypothetical ones: paranoia, denial, schizophrenia, mean world syndrome.^[24] For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Mean World Syndrome is described as the distinguishing characteristic of Media Induced Post-traumatic Stress Disorder (MIPTSD). ...

Socio-political origins

Christopher Hitchens represents conspiracy theories as the 'exhaust fumes of democracy', the unavoidable result of a large amount of information circulating among a large number of people. Other social commentators and sociologists argue that conspiracy theories are produced according to variables that may change within a democratic (or other type of) society. Christopher Eric Hitchens (born April 13, 1949) is a British-American author, journalist and literary critic. ...

Conspiratorial accounts can be emotionally satisfying when they place events in a readily-understandable, moral context. The subscriber to the theory is able to assign moral responsibility for an emotionally troubling event or situation to a clearly-conceived group of individuals. Crucially, that group does not include the believer. The believer may then feel excused of any moral or political responsibility for remedying whatever institutional or societal flaw might be the actual source of the dissonance.^[25]

Where responsible behavior is prevented by social conditions, or is simply beyond the ability of an individual, the conspiracy theory facilitates the emotional discharge or closure that such emotional challenges (after Erving Goffman)^{[citation needed]} require. Like moral panics, conspiracy theories thus occur more frequently within communities that are experiencing social isolation or political dis-empowerment. In psychology, closure may refer to the state of experiencing an emotional conclusion to a difficult life event, such as the breakdown of a close interpersonal relationship or the death of loved one. ... Erving Goffman Erving Goffman (June 11, 1922 – November 19, 1982), was a sociologist and writer. ... Moral panic is a sociological term, coined by Stanley Cohen, meaning a reaction by a group of people based on the false or exaggerated perception that some cultural behavior or group, frequently a minority group or a subculture, is dangerously deviant and poses a menace to society. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

Mark Fenster argues that "just because overarching conspiracy theories are wrong does not mean they are not on to something. Specifically, they ideologically address real structural inequities, and constitute a response to a withering civil society and the concentration of the ownership of the means of production, which together leave the political subject without the ability to be recognized or to signify in the public realm" (1999: 67). Means of production (abbreviated MoP; German: Produktionsmittel), are the combination of the means of labor and the subject of labor used by workers to make products. ...

Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of World War I: “The Great War ” redirects here. ...

Those events that are most important are hardest to understand, because they attract the greatest attention from myth makers and charlatans.

This normal process could be diverted by a number of influences. At the level of the individual, pressing psychological needs may influence the process, and certain of our universal mental tools may impose epistemic 'blind spots'. At the group or sociological level, historic factors may make the process of assigning satisfactory meanings more or less problematic. Theory of knowledge redirects here: for other uses, see theory of knowledge (disambiguation) Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, knowledge + λόγος, logos) or theory of knowledge is a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. ...

Alternatively, conspiracy theories may arise when evidence available in the public record does not correspond with the common or official version of events. In this regard, conspiracy theories may sometimes serve to highlight 'blind spots' in the common or official interpretations of events (Fenster, 1999).

Media tropes

Media commentators regularly note a tendency in news media and wider culture to understand events through the prism of individual agents, as opposed to more complex structural or institutional accounts.^[26] If this is a true observation, it may be expected that the audience which both demands and consumes this emphasis itself is more receptive to personalized, dramatic accounts of social phenomena. For other uses, see Drama (disambiguation). ...

A second, perhaps related, media trope is the effort to allocate individual responsibility for negative events. The media have a tendency to start to seek culprits if an event occurs that is of such significance that it does not drop off the news agenda within a few days. Of this trend, it has been said that the concept of a pure accident is no longer permitted in a news item.^[27] Again, if this is a true observation, it may reflect a real change in how the media consumer perceives negative events.

Political use of conspiracy theories

In his two volume work The Open Society & Its Enemies, 1938–1943, Popper used the term "conspiracy theory" to criticize the ideologies driving fascism, Nazism and communism. Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on "conspiracy theories" which drew on imaginary plots driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, racism or classism. Popper did not argue against the existence of everyday conspiracies (as incorrectly suggested in much of the later literature). Popper even uses the term "conspiracy" to describe ordinary political activity in the classical Athens of Plato (who was the principal target of his attack in The Open Society & Its Enemies). Fascism is a term used to describe authoritarian nationalist political ideologies or mass movements that are concerned with notions of cultural decline or decadence. ... Nazism in history Nazi ideology Nazism and race Outside Germany Related subjects Lists Politics Portal         Nazism or National Socialism (German: Nationalsozialismus), refers primarily to the ideology and practices of the Nazi Party (National Socialist German Workers Party, German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei or NSDAP) under Adolf Hitler. ... This article is about the form of society and political movement. ... The History of Athens is one of the longest of any city in Europe and in the world. ... For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation). ...

In his critique of Marx and the twentieth century totalitarians, Popper wrote, "I do not wish to imply that conspiracies never happen. On the contrary, they are typical social phenomena."^[28]

He reiterated his point, "Conspiracies occur, it must be admitted. But the striking fact which, in spite of their occurrence, disproved the conspiracy theory is that few of these conspiracies are ultimately successful. Conspirators rarely consummate their conspiracy."^[28]

Popper proposed the term "the conspiracy theory of society" to criticize the methodology of Marx, Hitler and others whom he deemed to be deluded by "historicism" - the reduction of history to an overt and naive distortion via a crude formulaic analysis usually predicated on an agenda replete with unsound presuppositions.^[29]

Anti-Semitism and conspiracy theories

The contemporary form of anti-Semitism is identified in Britannica 1911 as a conspiracy theory serving the self-understanding of the European aristocracy, whose social power waned with the rise of bourgeois society.^[30] The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... Aristocrat redirects here. ... Bourgeois redirects here. ...

Antisemitic conspiracy theories have been conceived throughout history. According to Kenneth S. Stern, Kenneth S. Stern is an attorney and an author. ...

"Historically, Jews have not fared well around conspiracy theories. Such ideas fuel anti-Semitism. The myths that Jews killed Christ, or poisoned wells, or killed Christian children to bake matzo, or "made up" the Holocaust, or plot to control the world, do not succeed each other; rather, the list of anti-Semitic canards gets longer. The militia movement today believes in the conspiracy theory of the Protocols, even if some call it something else and never mention Jews. From the perspective of history, we know that this is the type of climate in which anti-Semitism can grow."^[31] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For the logical fallacy, see poisoning the well. ... Blood libels are the accusations that Jews use human blood in certain aspects of their religious rituals. ... Richard Harwoods Did Six Million Really Die? Holocaust denial is the claim that the mainstream historical version of the Holocaust is either highly exaggerated or completely falsified. ... For the 2005 documentary film by Marc Levin, see Protocols of Zion (film). ...

Examples of common conspiracy theories

Main article: List of conspiracy theories

• Extraterrestrials are being hidden by governments either to preserve public order or as part of a deal between aliens and a secret government. The latter is a major theme of the popular The X-Files TV show.
• 9/11 conspiracy theories, theories which attempt to explain what happened on 9/11, such as elements within the intelligence community committing a psychological warfare operation.

• The John F. Kennedy assassination was an operation carried out by government officials and not Lee Harvey Oswald acting alone. Oliver Stone's film JFK is based on this premise.
• The New World Order theories claiming a powerful and secretive group plans to institute a one-world government.
• World domination by Jews, one of the oldest extant conspiracy theories (often incorporating various existing or historical secret societies and most major conspiracy theories)
• The Apollo Moon-Landing Hoax Theory suggests that some or all elements of the Apollo missions were faked by NASA.
• The theory of satanic ritual abuse, a widespread belief that a conspiracy of child molesters and satanists are engaging in child sexual abuse.
• The Paul is Dead theory, stating that Paul McCartney of The Beatles died in 1966 and was replaced by a look-alike while clues were hidden in songs and album cover art.

This is a list of conspiracy theories; theories involving conspiracies, which are not recognized as true by most mainstream sources. ... Extraterrestrial life refers to forms of life that may exist and originate outside of the planet Earth. ... Green people redirects here. ... This article is being considered for deletion in accordance with Wikipedias deletion policy. ... In literature, a theme is a broad idea in a story, or a message or lesson conveyed by a work. ... This article is about the TV show. ... A variety of conspiracy theories question the mainstream account of the September 11, 2001 attacks against the United States. ... Kennedy Assassination redirects here. ... Lee Harvey Oswald (October 18, 1939 – November 24, 1963) was the presumed assassin of U.S. President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963 in Dallas, Texas. ... William Oliver Stone (born September 15, 1946), known as Oliver Stone, is a three-time Academy Award winning film director and screenwriter. ... JFK is an American film directed by Oliver Stone, first released on December 20, 1991. ... One World Government redirects here. ... This is a list of conspiracy theories; theories involving conspiracies, which are not recognized as true by most mainstream sources. ... A secret society is a social organization that requires its members to conceal certain activities—such as rites of initiation or club ceremonies—from outsiders. ... Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong in NASAs training mockup of the Moon and lander module. ... The Apollo program was a human spaceflight program undertaken by NASA during the years 1961 – 1975 with the goal of conducting manned moon landing missions. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... Satanism Associated organizations The Church of Satan First Satanic Church Prominent figures Anton LaVey | Blanche Barton | Peter H. Gilmore | Peggy Nadramia | Karla LaVey Associated concepts Left-Hand Path | Pentagonal Revisionism | Suitheism | Might is Right Books and publications The Satanic Bible | The Satanic Rituals | The Satanic Witch | The Devils Notebook... Paul McCartney Dead: The Great Hoax, a magazine reporting on the rumours concerning McCartney. ... Sir James Paul McCartney, MBE (born 18 June 1942) is an English singer-songwriter, composer, multi-instrumentalist, poet, entrepreneur, painter, record producer, film producer, and animal-rights activist. ... The White Album, see The Beatles (album). ... A look-alike is a person who bears a close physical resemblance to a celebrity, politician or royalty. ...

Conspiracy theories in fiction

Main article: Conspiracy theories (fictional)

Because of their dramatic potential, conspiracies are a popular theme in thrillers and science fiction. Complex history is recast as a morality play in which bad people cause bad events, and good people identify and defeat them. Fictional conspiracy theories offer neat, intuitive narratives, in which the conspirators' plot fits closely the dramatic needs of the story's plot. As mentioned above, the cui bono? aspect of conspiracy theories resembles one element of mystery stories: the search for a possibly hidden motive. Spoiler warning: Particularly since the 1960s, conspiracy theory has been a popular subject of fiction. ... The thriller is a broad genre of literature, film, and television. ... Science fiction is a form of speculative fiction principally dealing with the impact of imagined science and technology, or both, upon society and persons as individuals. ... For the theatrical allegory, see morality play. ...

Dr. Strangelove was a 1964 comedy about modern nuclear warfare. The end of the world is precipitated by the delusions of General Jack D. Ripper who happens to be in control of a SAC nuclear air wing. General Ripper believes there is a Communist conspiracy which threatens to "sap and impurify" the "precious bodily fluids" of the American people with fluoridated water. Strangelove redirects here. ... SAC can mean: S-Allyl cysteine, a chemical constituent of garlic SAC Capital Partners, a hedge fund managed by Steven A. Cohen SAC programming language St. ... This article is about communism as a form of society and as a political movement. ... This article needs cleanup. ...

Conspiracy Theory is a 1997 thriller about a taxi driver (played by Mel Gibson) who publishes a newsletter in which he discusses what he suspects are government conspiracies, and it turns out that one or more of them are true. This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Mel Columcille Gerard Gibson, AO (born January 3, 1956) is a two-time Academy Award-winning American-Australian actor, director, producer and screenwriter. ...

The X-Files was a popular television show during the 1990s and early 2000s, which followed the investigations of two intrepid FBI agents, Fox Mulder and Dana Scully, who were sometimes helped by a group of conspiracy theorists known as The Lone Gunmen. Many of the episodes dealt with a plot for alien invasion overseen by elements of the U.S. government, led by an individual known only as the Cigarette Smoking Man and an even more mysterious international "Syndicate". The famous tag line of the series, "The Truth Is Out There", can be interpreted as reference to the meaning-seeking nature of the genre discussed above. This article is about the TV show. ... Special Agent Fox William Mulder (born October 13, 1961), nicknamed Spooky Mulder, is a fictional character played by David Duchovny on the 1993-2002 television series, The X-Files. ... Special Agent Dana Katherine Scully, M.D. (born February 23, 1964) is a fictional character on the FOX television series The X-Files (1993-2002), played by Gillian Anderson. ... This article is about the characters from The X-Files. ... For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United States (disambiguation) Motto In God We Trust(since 1956) (From Many, One; Latin, traditional) Anthem The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City National language English (de facto)1 Demonym American... Cancer man redirects here. ... For other uses, see Conspiracy theory (disambiguation). ...

Umberto Eco's novel Foucault's Pendulum is a broad satire on conspiracism in which the characters attempt to construct an all-embracing conspiracy theory starting with the Templars and including the Bavarian Illuminati, the Rosicrucians, hollow Earth enthusiasts, the Cathars, and even the Jesuits. Umberto Eco (born January 5, 1932) is an Italian medievalist, semiotician, philosopher and novelist, best known for his novel The Name of the Rose (Il nome della rosa) and his many essays. ... Foucaults Pendulum (original title: Il pendolo di Foucault) is a novel by Italian novelist and philosopher Umberto Eco. ... For other uses, see Knights Templar (disambiguation). ... This is an article about groups called the Illuminati. For information on the games, see Illuminati (game) and Illuminati: New World Order. ... The Temple of the Rose Cross, Teophilus Schweighardt Constantiens, 1618. ... A Hollow Earth theory posits that the planet Earth has a hollow interior and, possibly, a habitable inner surface. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Catharism. ... Seal of the Society of Jesus. ...

See also

• 9/11 conspiracy theories
• Assassination
• Black helicopters
• Boris III of Bulgaria
• Espionage
• Freemasons
• Government Warehouse
• Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener
• Illuminati
• Bilderberg Group
• Kleptocracy
• Liberty Lobby (defunct)
• Yitzhak Rabin assassination conspiracy theories
• Percy Bysshe Shelley
• Sovereign Citizen Movement
• Vatican Secret Archives
• Robert Anton Wilson

A variety of conspiracy theories question the mainstream account of the September 11, 2001 attacks against the United States. ... Assassin and Assassins redirect here. ... A stereotypical image of a black helicopter Black helicopters are part of a conspiracy theory, especially prevalent among the US militia movement, that claims that special unmarked black helicopters are used by secret agents of the New World Order, United Nations troops and/or the Men in Black preparing to... Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria (January 30, 1894 – August 28, 1943), originally Boris Klemens Robert Maria Pius Ludwig Stanislaus Xaver, son of Ferdinand I, came to the throne in 1918 upon the abdication of his father, following Bulgarias defeat in World War I. This was the countrys second... Spy and Secret agent redirect here. ... Freemasons redirects here. ... The Government Warehouse at the end of the movie Raiders of the Lost Ark. ... Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener, KG, KP, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, ADC, PC (24 June 1850 – 5 June 1916) was an Anglo-Irish British Field Marshal, diplomat and statesman popularly referred to as Lord Kitchener. ... Illuminata redirects here. ... The front cover of the allegedly privately circulated report of the 1980 Bilderberg conference in Bad Aachen, Germany. ... -1... Liberty Lobby was a right-wing political advocacy organization which existed in the United States between 1955 and 2001. ... Yitzhak Rabin assassination conspiracy theories arose almost immediately following the assassination of Yitzhak Rabin, the Israeli Prime Minister, on November 4, 1995. ... Percy Bysshe Shelley (August 4, 1792 – July 8, 1822; pronounced ) was one of the major English Romantic poets and is widely considered to be among the finest lyric poets of the English language. ... The Sovereign Citizen Movement is a loosely organized collection of groups and individuals who have adopted an essentially anarchist ideology. ... The Vatican Secret Archives (Latin: Archivum Secretum Apostolicum Vaticanum), located in Vatican City, is the central repository for all of the acts promulgated by the Holy See. ... Robert Anton Wilson Robert Anton Wilson or RAW (January 18, 1932 – January 11, 2007) was a prolific American novelist, essayist, philosopher, psychologist, futurologist, anarchist, and conspiracy theory researcher. ...

Concepts

Apophenia is the experience of seeing patterns or connections in random or meaningless data. ... A cabal is a number of persons united in some close design, usually to promote their private views and interests in a church, state, or other community by intrigue. ... The clustering illusion is the natural human tendency to see patterns where actually none exist. ... For other uses, see Consensus (disambiguation). ... Hanlons razor is an adage which reads: Also worded as: // According to Joseph Bigler,[1] the quotation first came from a certain Robert J. Hanlon as a submission for a book compilation of various jokes related to Murphys law published in 1980 entitled Murphys Law Book Two... Conspiracy? is a television series that was created and originally aired on The History Channel (as of December 2006, it is being syndicated on the History International Channel) that examines recent historical events from the perspective of conspiracy theory. ... The History Channel is a cable television channel, dedicated to the presentation of historical events and persons, often with frequent observations and explanations by noted historians as well as reenactors and witnesses to events, if possible. ... Spoiler warning: Particularly since the 1960s, conspiracy theory has been a popular subject of fiction. ... In the criminal law, a conspiracy is an agreement between natural persons to break the law at some time in the future, and, in some cases, with at least one overt act in furtherance of that agreement. ... This is a list of conspiracy theories; theories involving conspiracies, which are not recognized as true by most mainstream sources. ... Mind control (or thought control) has the premise that an outside source can control an individuals thinking, behavior or consciousness (either directly or more subtly). ... For other senses of this word, see paranoia (disambiguation). ... Paranoia (magazine) [1] Since 1992, PARANOIA: The Conspiracy & Paranormal Reader has presented alternative views and marginalized theories of the inner workings of the cryptocracy. ... The Paranoid Style in American Politics is an essay by the American historian Richard J. Hofstadter, first published in Harpers magazine in November 1964. ...

Known conspiracy theorists past and present

The following people are known to have proposed conspiracy theories:

Arthur Art W. Bell, III (born June 17, 1945) is an American broadcaster and author, known primarily as the founder and longtime host of the paranormal-themed radio program Coast to Coast AM. He also created and formerly hosted its companion show, Dreamland. ... Paranormal is an umbrella term used to describe a wide variety of reported anomalous phenomena. ... Coast to Coast AM is a late-night syndicated radio talk show in the United States which deals with a variety of topics, but most frequently ones that relate either to the paranormal, or to alleged conspiracies. ... Peter David Beter Peter David Beter (1921-1987), was an U.S. lawyer, who became a conspiracy theorist. ... The Rockefeller family, the renowned Cleveland family of John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) (Senior) and his brother William Rockefeller (1841-1922), is an American industrial, banking, and political family of German American origin that made the worlds largest private fortune in the oil business during the late 19th and... This article is about the Bolshevik faction in the RSDLP 1903-1912. ... A bilingual poster in Romanian and Hungarian promoting a film about Jewish settlement in Palestine, 1930s. ... This article is about Russian citadels. ... Mae Brussell (1922, Beverly Hills, California – 1988 October 3, Carmel, California) was a conspiracy theorist and radio personality. ... A conspiracy theory is a theory that defies common historical or current understanding of events, under the claim that those events are the result of manipulations by two or more individuals or various secretive powers or conspiracies. ... a Radio Personality is the modern incarnation of the disk jockey, or DJ. In the 1990s, successful radio stations began to focus less on the musical expertise of their hosts and more on the individual hosts personalities. ... John Kennedy and JFK redirect here. ... William Guy Carr William Guy Carr (born June 2, 1895, died October 2, 1959) was a Canadian naval officer and an author. ... Illuminata redirects here. ... Demonology is the systematic study of demons or beliefs about demons. ... Jimmy Akins rendition of Jack Chick. ... A comic book is a magazine or book containing the art form of comics. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Chick tracts are short comic-style tracts created by American publisher Jack Chick. ... This article is about traditional role-playing games. ... James Shelby Downard (1909-1996) was an American conspiracy theorist whose works, most of which have been published in various anthologies from Feral House, examined percieved occult symbolism and synchronicity behind historical events in the 21st century. ... For other uses, see Occult (disambiguation). ... Twilight language is a rendering of the Sanskrit term and may also refer to: The Twilight Language:Explorations in Buddhist Meditation and Symbolism, a 1986 book by Roderick Bucknell and Martin Stuart-Fox; A conspiracy theory proposed by James Shelby Downard and embraced by Michael A. Hoffman II; Twilight Language... Synchronicity is the experience of two or more events which occur in a meaningful manner, but which are causally inexplicable to the person or persons experiencing them. ... David Emory is an American talk radio host and personality based in Ben Lomond, California. ... For other uses, see Talk Radio. ... Combatants Allied powers: China France Great Britain Soviet Union United States and others Axis powers: Germany Italy Japan and others Commanders Chiang Kai-shek Charles de Gaulle Winston Churchill Joseph Stalin Franklin Roosevelt Adolf Hitler Benito Mussolini Hideki Tōjō Casualties Military dead: 17,000,000 Civilian dead: 33,000... Myron Coureval Fagan (31 October 1887 - 12 May 1972) was a Jewish American[1] writer, producer and director for film and theatre. ... One World Government redirects here. ... Francis E. Dec (1926–1996) was an American from Hempstead, New York known for his social-political tracts. ... Hempstead is the name of some places in the United States of America: Hempstead County, Arkansas Hempstead, New York, the name of both a village and a town New Hempstead, New York Hempstead, Texas There are also a number of places named Hampstead in the world. ... This article is about the state. ... Des Griffin is an American right-wing[1] editor and conspiracy theorist. ... One World Government redirects here. ... Patrick Haseldine at N°10 Downing Street in July 1994 Patrick Haseldine (born July 11, 1942) is a former British diplomat who was dismissed by the then foreign secretary, John Major, in August 1989. ... The Foreign and Commonwealth Office, Whitehall, seen from St. ... Margaret Hilda Thatcher, Baroness Thatcher, LG, OM, PC, FRS (née Roberts; born 13 October 1925) served as British Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990 and leader of the Conservative Party from 1975 until 1990, being the first and only woman to hold either post. ... The verdict of the Scottish judges who convicted one Libyan agent, Abdelbaset Ali Mohmed Al Megrahi, on 270 counts of murder at the end of the Pan Am Flight 103 bombing trial failed to convince many observers – including relatives of the 270 victims – that justice had been done. ... PA 103 redirects here. ... Bernt Carlsson Bernt Wilmar Carlsson was born in 1938 in Stockholm, Sweden, and died in the Lockerbie bombing on December 21, 1988. ... Stanley G. Hilton is a San Francisco, California, based attorney, political scientist, and former chief of staff for Bob Dole. ... George W. Bush administration is the administration of the 43rd president of the United States of America, 2001-present George H. W. Bush administration is the administration of the 41st president of the United States of America, 1989-1993 This is a disambiguation page, a list of pages that otherwise... A sequential look at United Flight 175 crashing into the south tower of the World Trade Center The September 11, 2001 attacks (often referred to as 9/11—pronounced nine eleven or nine one one) consisted of a series of coordinated terrorist[1] suicide attacks upon the United States, predominantly... Richard C. Hoagland (born April 25, 1945) is an author of books that reject the scientific method in favour of speculative theories on astronomical topics, and conspiracy theories connected to the U.S. space program. ... This article is about Earths moon. ... This article is about the planet. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... United States Government redirects here. ... Michael A. Hoffman II, (born 1954, New York), is an American historian and writer. ... For other uses, see Holocaust (disambiguation) and Shoah (disambiguation). ... The Nation of Islam (NOI) is a religious and social/political organization founded in the United States by Wallace Fard Muhammad in 1930 with the self-proclaimed goal of resurrecting the spiritual, mental, social, economic condition of the black man and woman of America and belief that God will bring... Louis Farrakhan (born Louis Eugene Walcott, May 11, 1933), is the acting head of the Nation of Islam (NOI) as the National Representative of Elijah Muhammad. ... Reverend Dr. Jeremiah A. Wright, Jr. ... David Icke David Vaughan Icke (pronounced IKE //) (born April 29, 1952 in Leicester, England) is a British writer and public speaker who has devoted himself since 1990 to researching who and what is really controlling the world. ... Illuminata redirects here. ... For the 2005 documentary film by Marc Levin, see Protocols of Zion (film). ... For other persons of the same name, see Alex Jones. ... A panel from Tim LaHaye’s multi-million selling ‘’Left Behind’’ series, depicting the fate LaHaye anticipates for those who do not follow Jesus Christ. ... Jerry B. Jenkins (born September 23, 1949 in Kalamazoo, Michigan) is a novelist and biographer whose books usually feature evangelical Christians as protagonists. ... For other uses, see Left Behind (disambiguation). ... Lyndon LaRouche at a news conference in Paris in February 2006. ... Synarchism (from Greek words meaning to rule together, in Spanish Sinarquismo), is the ideology of a political movement in Mexico dating from the 1930s. ... G. Edward Griffin G. Edward Griffin, born on November 7, 1931, is an American political commentator, writer and documentary filmmaker, perhaps best known for his book The Creature from Jekyll Island that has been translated into Japanese. ... Rauni-Leena Luukanen-Kilde is a Finn with an education of a physician, but she is best known for her UFO contacts and related thoughts. ... Texe W. Marrs is an American preacher from Austin, Texas. ... Jordan Maxwell (28 December 1940) is a researcher and independent scholar in the fields of astro-theology, religion, secret societies, and the occult, with a focus on the foundations for modern-day religion and government. ... Thierry Meyssan Thierry Meyssan is a French journalist and extreme left political activist. ... Gary North For the bisexual rights activist, see Gary North (journalist) Gary North is a writer and publisher from the Christian Reconstruction movement. ... Roberto Pinotti was born in Venice, Italy, in 1944. ... Lew Rockwell Llewellyn H. Rockwell, Jr. ... Christopher Ruddy is an American journalist. ... John A. Stormer is an American Protestant anti-communist writer. ... Webster G. Tarpley (left) with William Rodriguez (right) on the 9/11 + The Neo-Con Agenda Symposium Webster Griffin Tarpley is an author, lecturer, and critic of US foreign and domestic policy which he has termed the Anglo-American oligarchical empire. He maintains that the events of 9/11 were... Robert Anton Wilson Robert Anton Wilson or RAW (January 18, 1932 – January 11, 2007) was a prolific American novelist, essayist, philosopher, psychologist, futurologist, anarchist, and conspiracy theory researcher. ... Émile Zola (IPA: ) (2 April 1840 – 29 September 1902) was an influential French writer, the most important example of the literary school of naturalism, and a major figure in the political liberalization of France and in the exoneration of the falsely accused and convicted Army officer Alfred Dreyfus. ... The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal with anti-Semitic overtones which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s. ... Jim Marrs (December 5, 1943) is a news reporter, college teacher, and author of books and articles on conspiracy theories. ...

Notes

Hannah Arendt (October 14, 1906 – December 4, 1975) was a German Jewish political theorist. ... John Foster Chip Berlet (born November 22, 1949) is an American photographer and researcher specializing in the study of right-wing movements in the United States, particularly the religious right, white supremacists, homophobic groups, and paramilitary organizations. ... Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, political activist, author and lecturer. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 279th day of the year (280th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Z Communications is a self-described journalism-intensive media group, founded in 1987 by Michael Albert and Lydia Sargent. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Era (or Anno Domini), in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 113th day of the year (114th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... {| style=float:right; |- | |- | |} is the 235th day of the year (236th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 328th day of the year (329th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... {| style=float:right; |- | |- | |} is the 235th day of the year (236th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 118th day of the year (119th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 219th day of the year (220th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 156th day of the year (157th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 158th day of the year (159th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 249th day of the year (250th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... {| style=float:right; |- | |- | |} is the 235th day of the year (236th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... {| style=float:right; |- | |- | |} is the 235th day of the year (236th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Sir Karl Raimund Popper (July 28, 1902 â€“ September 17, 1994) was an Austrian and British[1] philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics. ... The Princeton University Press is a publishing house, a division of Princeton University, that is highly respected in academic publishing. ... This is an overview of the Devil. ... Peter H. Gilmore, High Priest of the Church of Satan. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 225th day of the year (226th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... European Court of Human Rights building in Strasbourg The European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), often referred to informally as the Strasbourg Court, was created to systematise the hearing of human rights complaints against States Parties to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, adopted by...

References

• American Heritage Dictionary, "Conspiracy theory"
• Barkun, Michael. 2003. A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-23805-2
• Chase, Alston. 2003. Harvard and the Unabomber: The Education of an American Terrorist. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-02002-9
• Fenster, Mark. 1999. Conspiracy Theories: Secrecy and Power in American Culture. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-3243-X
• Goldberg, Robert Alan. 2001. Enemies Within: The Culture of Conspiracy in Modern America. New Haven & London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-09000-5
• Hofstadter, Richard. 1965. The Paranoid Style in American Politics and Other Essays. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-674-65461-7
• Johnson, George 1983. Architects of Fear: Conspiracy Theories and Paranoia in American Politics. Los Angeles: Jeremy P. Tarcher, Inc. ISBN 0-87477-275-3
• Melley, Timothy. 1999. Empire of Conspiracy: The Culture of Paranoia in Postwar America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-8606-8
• Mintz, Frank P. 1985. The Liberty Lobby and the American Right: Race, Conspiracy, and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood. ISBN 0-313-24393-X
• Pipes, Daniel. 1997. Conspiracy: How the Paranoid Style Flourishes and Where It Comes from. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-684-87111-4
• ---. 1998. The Hidden Hand: Middle East Fears of Conspiracy. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0-312-17688-0
• Popper, Karl R. 1945. The Open Society and Its Enemies. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01968-1
• Posner, Gerald. 1993. Case Closed: Lee Harvey Oswald and the Assassination of JFK. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-385-47446-6
• Sagan, Carl. 1996. The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. New York: The Random House. ISBN 0-394-53512-X
• Vankin, Jonathan, and John Whalen. 2004. The 80 Greatest Conspiracies of All Time. New York: Citadel Press. ISBN 0-8065-2531-2

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (AHD) is a dictionary of American English published by Boston publisher Houghton-Mifflin, the first edition of which appeared in 1969. ... Richard Hofstadter (August 6, 1916 - October 24, 1970) was an American historian and DeWitt Clinton Professor of American History at Columbia University. ... Daniel Pipes in Copenhagen Daniel Pipes (born September 9, 1949) is an American historian and analyst who specializes in the Middle East. ... Sir Karl Raimund Popper (July 28, 1902 â€“ September 17, 1994) was an Austrian and British[1] philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics. ... Gerald Posner and his wife Trisha. ... Carl Edward Sagan (November 9, 1934 – December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer and astrochemist and a highly successful popularizer of astronomy, astrophysics, and other natural sciences. ... Jonathan Vankin is an author and journalist. ...

Further reading

• Conspiracism, Political Research Associates
• Cziesche, Dominik; Jürgen Dahlkamp, Ulrich Fichtner, Ulrich Jaeger, Gunther Latsch, Gisela Leske, Max F. Ruppert (2003). Panoply of the Absurd. Der Spiegel. Der Spiegel. Retrieved on 2006-06-06.
• Parsons, Charlotte (2001). Why we need conspiracy theories. BBC News - Americas. BBC. Retrieved on 2006-06-26.
• Meigs, James B. (2006). The Conspiracy Industry. Popular Mechanics. Hearst Communications, Inc.. Retrieved on 2006-10-13.
• (2004) in Barry Coward: Conspiracies and Conspiracy Theory in Early Modern Europe: From the Waldensians to the French Revolution. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 0754635643. 
• (2003) in Peter Knight: Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia. ABC-Clio. ISBN 1576078124. 
• West, Harry G. and Todd Sanders (eds) Transparency and Conspiracy: Ethnographies of Suspicion in the New World Order. Durham: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822330240
• Rudmin, Floyd (2003). Conspiracy Theory As Naive Deconstructive History. newdemocracy.org. Retrieved on 2008-04-18.

Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 157th day of the year (158th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 177th day of the year (178th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 286th day of the year (287th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Era (or Anno Domini), in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 108th day of the year (109th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Conspiracist literature

• The Protocols of the Elders of Zion
• Balsiger, David W. and Charles E. Sellier, Jr. (1977). The Lincoln Conspiracy. Los Angeles: Schick Sun Classic Books. ISBN 1-56849-531-5
• Bryan, Gerald B.; Talita Paolini, Kenneth Paolini [1940] (2000). Psychic Dictatorship in America. Paolini International LLC. ISBN 0-9666213-1-X. 
• Cooper, Milton William (1991). Behold a Pale Horse. Light Technology Publications. ISBN 0-929385-22-5. 
• Icke, David (2004). And the Truth Shall Set You Free: The 21st Century Edition. Bridge of Love. ISBN 0-9538810-5-9. 
• Levenda, Peter (2005). Sinister Forces: Trilogy. Trine Day. ISBN 0-9752906-2-2. 
• Marrs, Texe (1996). Project L.U.C.I.D.: The Beast 666 Universal Human Control System. Living Truth Publishers. ISBN 1-884302-02-5. 
• Tudge, Robin, and James McConnachie (2005). The Rough Guide to Conspiracy Theories. London: Rough Guides. ISBN 1-84353-445-2
• Pelley, William Dudley (1950). Star Guests: Design for Mortality. Noblesville, Indiana: Soulcraft Press. 
• Robertson, Pat (1992). The New World Order. W Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8499-3394-3. 
• Wilson, Robert Anton (2002). TSOG: The Thing That Ate the Constitution, Tempe, AZ: New Falcon Publications. ISBN 1-56184-169-2
• Yallop, David A. (1984). In God's Name: An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I. New York: Bantam Dell Publishing Group. ISBN 0-553-05073-7
• York, Byron (2005). The Vast Left Wing Conspiracy: The Untold Story of How Democratic Operatives, Eccentric Billionaires, Liberal Activists, and Assorted Celebrities Tried to Bring Down a President - and Why They'll Try Even Harder Next Time. New York: Crown Forum. ISBN 1-4000-8238-2
• Conspiracies, Conspiracy Theories and the Secrets of 9/11, by Mathias Bröckers. Sees conspiracy as a fundamental principle between cooperation and competition. Proposes a new science of "conspirology."

For the 2005 documentary film by Marc Levin, see Protocols of Zion (film). ... The Lincoln Conspiracy is a book by David W. Balsiger and Charles E. Sellier, Jr. ... The I AM Activity is a religious movement of the early 20th century, founded and led by Guy Ballard and his wife Edna in the United States of America. ... William Milton Cooper (May 6, 1943 - November 5, 2001) was an American writer, shortwave broadcaster, militia supporter and conspiracy theorist. ... David Icke David Vaughan Icke (pronounced IKE //) (born April 29, 1952 in Leicester, England) is a British writer and public speaker who has devoted himself since 1990 to researching who and what is really controlling the world. ... The subject of this article may not satisfy the notability guideline or one of the following guidelines for inclusion on Wikipedia: Biographies, Books, Companies, Fiction, Music, Neologisms, Numbers, Web content, or several proposals for new guidelines. ... Texe W. Marrs is an American preacher from Austin, Texas. ... William Dudley Pelley wanted poster William Dudley Pelley (March 12, 1890-July 1, 1965) was an American Fascist and leader of the Silver Legion. ... Marion Gordon Pat Robertson (born March 22, 1930) is a televangelist from the United States. ... David Anthony Yallop (born 1937 London) is a British author who writes chiefly about unsolved crimes. ... Mathias Bröckers is a writer, journalist and longtime editor of the Berlin daily TAZ (Die Tageszeitung). ...

External links

• The Economics of Conspiracy Theories
• An Integral Approach to Conspiracy Theory
• On the hunt for a conspiracy theory, CS Monitor article
• 'The Paranoid Style in American Politics' Richard Hofstadter, Harper's 1964 November
• Amir Butler: Our Credibility Problem is a Conspiracy - A discussion of the spread of conspiracy theories in the Muslim community