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Battle of the Milvian Bridge, Raphael, Vatican Rooms. The artist depicted the troops of Constantine bearing the labarum.

Constantinian shift is a term used by Anabaptist and Post-Christendom theologians to describe the political and theological aspects of the 4th century process of Constantine's legitimization of Christianity.^{[citation needed]} Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... Download high resolution version (614x793, 146 KB)Raphael, Vatican Rooms: Constatine at the battle of Milvian Bridge This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (614x793, 146 KB)Raphael, Vatican Rooms: Constatine at the battle of Milvian Bridge This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Raphael Sanzio or Raffaello (April 6, 1483 – April 6, 1520) was an Italian master painter and architect of the Florentine school in High Renaissance, celebrated for the perfection and grace of his paintings. ... The Labarum An image of the labarum, with the Greek letters Alpha and Omega inscribed. ... Anabaptists (Greek ανα (again) +βαπτιζω (baptize), thus, re-baptizers[1], German: Wiedertäufer) are Christians of the Radical Reformation. ... Belief in God per country (Eurobarometer 2005) A Time magazine cover story (April 8, 1966) on religion in America asked Is God Dead? Post Christian, post-Christian or postchristian is a term used to describe a personal world view, religious movement or society that is no longer rooted in the... As a means of recording the passage of time, the 4th century was that century which lasted from 301 to 400. ... The relationship between Constantine I and Christianity entails both the nature of the conversion of the emperor to Christianity, and his relations with the Christian Church. ...

Historical context

This shift began in the 4th century around 312 when Constantine I adopted Christianity as his personal system of belief after the Battle of Milvian Bridge.^{[citation needed]} His legions, who were victorious, fought under the "labarum", a standard with the first two Greek letters of Christ's name. Head of Constantines colossal statue at Musei Capitolini Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus[1] (February 27, 272–May 22, 337), commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or (among Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic[2] Christians) Saint Constantine, was a Roman Emperor, proclaimed Augustus by his troops on... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... Combatants Constantinian forces Maxentian forces Commanders Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius† Strength ~50000 men ~75000-120000 men Casualties Unknown Unknown The Battle of Milvian Bridge took place on October 28, 312 between the Roman Emperors Constantine the Great and Maxentius. ... The Roman Legion (from Latin , from lego, legere, legi, lectus — to collect) is a term that can apply both as a transliteration of legio (conscription or army) to the entire Roman army and also, more narrowly (and more commonly), to the heavy infantry that was the basic military unit of... The Labarum An image of the labarum, with the Greek letters Alpha and Omega inscribed. ... Technical note: Due to technical limitations, some web browsers may not display some special characters in this article. ... Christ is the English of the Greek word (Christós), which literally means The Anointed One. ...

In 313 the Edict of Milan legitimized Christianity alongside other religions practiced in the Roman Empire. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea signalled consolidation of Christianity under an orthodoxy endorsed by Constantine though this did not make other Christian groups outside his definition illegal. In 380 Emperor Theodosius I made Christianity the Roman Empire's official religion (see Byzantine Empire and the Goths) and did enforce the edict in 392 he passed legislation prohibiting all pagan cultic worship^{[citation needed]}. The Edict of Milan (313) was a letter that proclaimed religious toleration in the Roman Empire. ... Motto Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR) The Roman Empire. ... The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicea in Bithynia (in present-day Turkey), convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the first ecumenical[1] conference of bishops of the Catholic Church, and most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. ... An engraving depicting what Theodosius may have looked like, ca. ... Nations with state religions:  Buddhism  Islam  Shia Islam  Sunni Islam  Orthodox Christianity  Protestantism  Roman Catholic Church A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or creed officially endorsed by the state. ... Byzantine Empire at its greatest extent c. ... Invasion of the Goths: a late 19th century painting by O. Fritsche, is a highly romanticized portrait of the Goths as cavalrymen. ... Look up pagan, heathen in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

During the 4th century, there was no such unity between church and state, though: In the course of the Arian controversy, leading trinitarian bishops such as Athanasius, Hilary of Poitiers, and Gregory of Nyssa were banned by Arian emperors. This article is about theological views like those of Arius. ... Athanasius of Alexandria (also spelled Athanasios) was a Christian bishop of Alexandria in the fourth century. ... Hilarius or Hilary (c. ... Gregory of Nyssa ( 335 – after 394) was a Christian bishop and saint. ... Arian may refer to: Arian, being well endowed. ...

Towards the end of the century, bishop Ambrose of Milan made the powerful emperor Theodosius do penance for several months after the massacre of Thessalonica before admitting him again to the eucharist. On the other hand, only a few years later, Chrysostom who, as bishop of Constantinople was notorious for criticizing the excesses of the royal court, was eventually banished and died while traveling to his place of exile. Saint Ambrose, Latin Sanctus Ambrosius, Italian SantAmbrogio (circa 340 - April 4, 397), bishop of Milan, was one of the most eminent fathers of the Christian church in the 4th century. ... For other uses, see Eucharist (disambiguation). ... John Chrysostom (347 - 407) was a notable Christian bishop and preacher from the 4th and 5th centuries in Syria and Constantinople. ... Map of Constantinople. ...

Theological implications of shift

Critics point to this shift of the beginning of the era when Christianity and the will of God gradually came to be identified with the state.^{[citation needed]} This phenomenon is known as Caesaropapism. In its extreme form, such critics say, Christianity became little more than a religious justification for the exercise of power and a tool in the expansion and maintenance of empire, a Christian empire, also known as Christendom. This article discusses the term God in the context of monotheism and henotheism. ... Caesaropapism is the concept of combining the power of secular government with, or making it supreme to, the spiritual authority of the Christian Church; most especially, the inter-penetration of the theological authority of the Christian Church with the legal/juridical authority of the government; in its extreme form, it... This T-and-O map, which abstracts the known world to a cross inscribed within an orb, remakes geography in the service of Christian iconography. ...

Augustine of Hippo, who originally had rejected violence in religious matters, later justified it theologically in the case of heretics such as the Donatists, who themselves violently harassed^{[citation needed]} their opponents. Before him, Athanasius believed that violence was justified in weeding out heresies that could damn all future Christians.^[1] This continued a line of thought started by Athanasius who felt that any means was justified in repressing the Arian heresy.^[2] In 385, Priscillian, a bishop in Spain, was the first Christian to be executed for heresy, though the most prominent church leaders rejected this verdict. “Augustinus” redirects here. ... The Donatists (founded by the Berber christian Donatus) were followers of a belief considered a heresy by the Roman Catholic Church. ... Athanasius of Alexandria (also spelled Athanasios) was a Christian bishop of Alexandria in the fourth century. ... This article is about theological views like those of Arius. ... Priscillian of Avila (died 385) was a Spanish theologian and the founder of a party which advocated strong asceticism. ...

Theologians critical of the Constantinian shift also see it as the point at which membership in the Christian church became associated with citizenship rather than a personal decision. American theologian Stanley Hauerwas names the shift as the foundation for the expression of Christianity in the United States today that is closely associated with patriotism and civil religion. Dr. Stanley Hauerwas Stanley Hauerwas (b. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... The intended meaning of the term civil religion often varies according to whether one is a sociologist of religion or a professional political commentator. ...

Criticisms

Vladimir Lossky in his discourse on theology in The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, argued that Western Christianity had changed its understanding of the Christian religion theologically, which he attributes to a disconnect with Eastern traditions, mainly due to the Middle East falling under Islamic rule and the Schism of 1054 between the Pope of Rome and the Orthodox churches of the Middle East. Vladimir N. Lossky (May 26, 1903–February 7, 1958) was a 20th century Greek or Eastern Orthodox theologian. ... Eastern Orthodoxy (also called Greek Orthodoxy and Russian Orthodoxy) is a Christian tradition which represents the majority of Eastern Christianity. ... The term Great Schism may refer to: The East-West Schism, in 1054 between Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christianity. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Wycliffe Tyndale · Luther · Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Pope · Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box:      The Pope of Rome... Separate articles treat Eastern Orthodox Christianity and Orthodox Judaism. ...

Little of the historical events addressed in the "Constantinian shift" have been addressed in the West by Eastern Christian scholars or Eastern Christian theologians. There are a marked few, small exceptions.^[3]

From the Eastern Christian traditions, this part of their history does not contain any modern address or refutation as church doctrine. This disconnect also comes from historical distortions. Constantine continued to engage in imperial pagan religious practices. He also engaged in astrology even though possibly being addressed as a catechumen. It was only on his death bed that Constantine himself was baptized a Christian, though this was a common practice at the time. Constantine, after the council, eventually recalled Arius from exile and banished Athanasius of Alexandria to Trier. Hand-coloured version of the anonymous Flammarion woodcut. ... In ecclesiology, a catechumen (from Latin catechumenus, Greek κατηχουμενος, instructed) is one receiving instruction in the principles of the Christian religion with a view to baptism. ... Arius (AD/CE 256 - 336, poss. ... Athanasius of Alexandria (Greek: Αθανάσιος, Athanásios; c 293 – May 2, 373) was a Christian bishop, the Bishop of Alexandria, in the fourth century. ... Trier (French: ; Luxembourgish Tréier) is a city in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. ...

Within an historical context, these two factions of Christianity (Arianism and Trinitarianism) did not resolve this conflict at the Council of Nicea. This article is about theological views like those of Arius. ... Trinitarianism is the Christian doctrine that God, although one being, exists in three distinct persons (hypostases) known collectively as the Holy Trinity. ...

As for the matter of state religion or the charge of Caesaropapism, none of the major world historical religious traditions has ever functioned within the framework of not being a state religion at some point in history. This can be seen, for example, in India even in its "Republic of India," referring to itself as Hindustan, which reflects the religion in the name of the nation.(reply: This is simply wrong. No official document refers to India as Hindustan. The Constitution of India refers to it as India, that is Bharat). In the Buddhist traditions, we see the theocracy of Tibet, which was only brought to an end by the Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1959. In the Hebrew tradition, this practice can be seen starting in the Tora with Abraham, followed by the Levite, and continuing through to the Sadducees. Islam's relationship to the state can be exemplified by the monarchy of Saudi Arabia, with its governing power coming from the monarchy, having the Quran and Shari'a as Saudi Arabia's constitution. Each of the above examplifies a civic power taking over or controlling a religious institution even though the civic power may not actually subscribe to the given religion or act in the best interests of the religious tradition it has co-opted. Caesaropapism is the concept of combining the power of secular government with, or making it supreme to, the spiritual authority of the Christian Church; most especially, the inter-penetration of the theological authority of the Christian Church with the legal/juridical authority of the government; in its extreme form, it... Hindustan (Hindi: हिन्दुस्तान [Hindustān], Urdu: [Hindostān], from the (Sanskrit) HindÅ« + -stān, archaic Hindoostan) and the adjective Hindustani may relate to various aspects of four geographic areas: Hindustan: Land of the Hindus. ... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, a prince of the Shakyas, whose lifetime is traditionally given as 566 to 486 BCE. It had subsequently been accepted by... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Tibet (older spelling Thibet; Tibetan: བོད་; Wylie: Bod; Lhasa dialect IPA: [; Simplified and Traditional Chinese: 西藏, Hanyu Pinyin: XÄ«zàng; also referred to as 藏区 (Simplified Chinese), 藏區 (Traditional Chinese), ZàngqÅ« (Hanyu Pinyin), see Name section below) is a plateau region in Central Asia and the indigenous home to the Tibetan people. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... TOra (Toolkit for Oracle) is an open source program for Oracle RDBMS developers and administrators. ... The angel prevents the sacrifice of Isaac (Rembrandt, 1634) Abraham (Hebrew: , Standard Avraham Ashkenazi Avrohom or Avruhom Tiberian  ; Arabic: ,  ; Geez: , ) is a figure in the Bible and Quran who is by believers regarded as the founding patriarch of the Israelites and of the Nabataean people in Jewish, Christian and... In the Jewish tradition, a Levite (לֵוִי Attached, Standard Hebrew , Tiberian Hebrew ) is a member of the Hebrew tribe of Levi. ... The sect of the Sadducees - from Hebrew Tsdoki צדוקי [], whence Zadokites or other variants - was founded in the 2nd century BCE, possibly as a political party, and ceased to exist sometime after the 1st century CE. The Hebrew name, Tsdoki, indicates their claim that they are the followers of the teachings... Islam (Arabic:  ) is a monotheistic religion based upon the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. ... The Quran (Arabic al-qurʾān أَلْقُرآن; also transliterated as Quran, Koran, and less commonly Alcoran) is the holy book of Islam. ... Sharia ( Arabic شريعة also Sharia, Shariah or Syariah) is traditional Islamic law. ...

After the Reformation, many European State Churches themselves were and remain Protestant (see Church of Denmark, Church of Norway, Church of Iceland (Protestant churches being outside the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox communion,) and also the Anglican state churches of the Church of England and the Anglican Church of Canada. Church in Holte The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Denmark (the church of Denmark or the peoples church of Denmark) (Danish:Den Danske Folkekirke) is a state church and is the largest Christian church in Denmark. ... Country church in Sogn, Norway The Church of Norway (Den norske kirke) also known as the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway is the state church of Norway, to which 86% of Norwegians belong. ... The National Church of Iceland, or Þjóðkirkjan, formally called the Evangelical Lutheran Church, is the state church in Iceland. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... Eastern Orthodoxy (also called Greek Orthodoxy and Russian Orthodoxy) is a Christian tradition which represents the majority of Eastern Christianity. ... The Church of England is the officially established Christian church[1] in England, and acts as the mother and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion, as well as a founding member of the Porvoo Communion. ... Anglican Church of Canada The Anglican Church of Canada (the ACC) is the Canadian branch of the Anglican Communion. ...

In the West, a very important contextual component of this conflict seems to lack recognition. Of the two main characters at the Nicene Council, both Athanasius and Arius were from the Egyptian church in Alexandria. As the teachings of Arius are the basis for the Council of Nicaea, so too can it be said that the teachings of St Athanasius, St Cyril of Alexandria were the basis of the Council of Chalcedon through Eutyches. So to give to the idea that a shift or change in Christianity's validitity or sincerety should be attributed to Constantine would be to take the incidents out of historical context and give far too much weight to Emperor Constantine's legalization of Christianity in the Roman Empire. Nor does the Constantinian shift take into account the climate at the time in the Roman Empire and the effects of both Christians and Christian sectarians on the stability of the empire. Athanasius of Alexandria (also spelled Athanasios) was a Christian bishop of Alexandria in the fourth century. ... Arius (AD/CE 256 - 336, poss. ... St. ... The Council of Chalcedon was an ecumenical council that took place from October 8 to November 1, 451, at Chalcedon (a city of Bithynia in Asia Minor), today part of the city of Istanbul on the Asian side of the Bosphorus and known as the district of Kadıköy. ... Eutyches (c. ...

The conclusions of Constantinian shift would be to deny an active movement within the Christian communities of the time, and that movement's historical significance to the clarification of what it meant specifically to be a Christian ^[4], ^[5].

The theory of a Constantinian shift also denies the history that followed Constantine's legalization of Christianity as well as specifics that proceeded it, a history that contained a brief unity between the Arians and Trinitarians. When Julian the Apostate ascended after Constantine II to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire, Julian then began to reinstate paganism (see Neoplatonism and theurgy) at the expense of Christianity. A point to note here is that though Theodosius I did institute christianity as a Roman Empire religion caused by the Gothic War (376–382), it was short lived. One decisive moment was the Battle of Chalons in 451 piting Christian against the Pagan Huns. As well as Byzantium being also sacked by the Goths the christianity that was instituted by Theodosius I, was not the one embraced by the ruling Goths (see Huneric of the Vandals and Fritigern). Also see Belisarius. Flavius Claudius Iulianus (331–June 26, 363), was a Roman Emperor (361–363) of the Constantinian dynasty. ... Constantine II as caesar. ... Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered around its capital in Constantinople. ... Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD, based on the teachings of Plato and earlier Platonists. ... Theurgy describes the practice of rituals, sometimes seen as magical in nature, performed with the intention of invoking the action of God (or other personified supernatural power), especially with the goal of uniting with the divine, or perfecting or improving oneself. ... An engraving depicting what Theodosius may have looked like, ca. ... Combatants Western Roman Empire, Visigoths, Alans Huns, Ostrogoths, Burgundians Commanders Flavius Aëtius, Theodoric† Attila the Hun Strength 30,000–50,000 500,000–1,000,000 At the Battle of Chalons (also called the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields or the Battle of the Catalun[] or the Battle of... Huneric (d. ... The Vandals were an East Germanic tribe, Germanic as defined by Tacitus, that entered the late Roman Empire during the 5th century. ... Frithugairns (Gothic for desiring peace) or Fritigern (died ca. ... Belisarius is thought to be the figure to the right of Emperor Justinian I in the mosaic in the Church of San Vitale Ravenna that celebrates the reconquest of Italy, performed by the Byzantine army under the skillful leadership of Belisarius himself. ...

Though while being in the status of state religion none could guarantee not being removed from this position (see Julian the apostate), no religious tradition appears to have been able to keep such a role permanently either, with the possible exceptions being in the Muslim world (see Turkey). With pre-Christian pagan empires being run by the emperor as a designated pagan god. Flavius Claudius Iulianus (331–June 26, 363), was a Roman Emperor (361–363) of the Constantinian dynasty. ...

This criteria also appears to be unsatisfiable in that either the religion is subjective to the state aka Caesaropapism or the religious tradition is the state aka Theocracy. Either characteristic being depicted as a negative one.

Support for the theory of a Constantian shift also would be to deny that Constantine considered himself to be partial or sympathetic to Arianism due to the influence of his historian, Eusebius of Caesarea, as well as the Arian opposition leader (and relative to Constantine I), Eusebius of Nicomedia. Eusebius of Nicomedia was the person Constantine had chosen to perform Constantine's baptism. Eusebius of Caesarea's conflict with Athanasius of Alexandria and Marcellus of Ancyra influenced Constantine to exile Athanasius and contributed to Marcellus being confirmed a heretic. So to say that Constantian was imposing onto Christianity an orthdoxy that he espoused would be to deny the historical context. The Constantinian shift does not acknowledge the power of the Arian sectarians and or the influence over Constantine I both the Eusebiuses and Arians had. Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea (c. ... Eusebius of Nicomedia and Constantinople, (d. ... Athanasius of Alexandria (Greek: Αθανάσιος, Athanásios; c 293 – May 2, 373) was a Christian bishop, the Bishop of Alexandria, in the fourth century. ... Marcellus of Ancyra (? - c. ...

Bibliography

• Timothy Barnes, Constantine and Eusebius, 1981
• James Bulloch, From Pilate to Constantine, 1981
• Alistair Kee, Constantine Versus Christ, 1982
• Ramsay MacMullan, Christianising the Roman Empire, 1984
• Roger E. Olson, The Story of Christian Theology, 1999

Notes

See also

• Christian anarchism
• Caesaropapism
• Early Christianity
• Great Apostasy
• Sacralism
• Donatists
• Constantinople

Christian anarchism is a synthesis of anarchist theory with Christian theology. ... Caesaropapism is the concept of combining the power of secular government with, or making it supreme to, the spiritual authority of the Christian Church; most especially, the inter-penetration of the theological authority of the Christian Church with the legal/juridical authority of the government; in its extreme form, it... The term Early Christianity here refers to Christianity of the period after the Death of Jesus in the early 30s and before the First Council of Nicaea in 325. ... The Great Apostasy is a disparaging term used by some religious groups to allege a general fallen state of traditional Christianity, or especially of Catholicism, magisterial Protestantism and Eastern Orthodoxy, that it is not representative of the faith founded by Jesus and promulgated through his twelve Apostles: in short, that... This page is a candidate to be copied to Wiktionary. ... The Donatists (founded by the Berber Christian Donatus Magnus) were followers of a belief considered a heresy by the broader Catholic community. ... Map of Constantinople. ...

External links

• The Powers and God's Providential Rule: Church and State - article discusses the effect of the Constantinian shift on the church from an Anabaptist perspective
• Social Constantinianism - an Evangelical perspective on the Constantinian shift
• The First Missionary War - a non-Christian historical perspective on the Constantinian shift
• Sobornost Inter-Christian community website dedicated to addressing the conflicts between Western Christianity and Eastern Orthodoxy.