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Craniometry is the technique of measuring the bones of the skull. Craniometry was once intensively practiced in anthropology/ethnology. Grays illustration of a human femur, a typically recognized bone. ... A hippopotamus skull A skull, or cranium, is a bony structure of Craniates which serves as the general framework for a head. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word άνθρωπος, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Ethnology (greek ethnos: (non-greek, barbarian) people) is a genre of anthropological study, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies. ...

Classification

Human skulls can be classified into three main categories based on cephalic index: The cephalic index is the ratio of the maximum breadth of the head to its maximum length (i. ...

• dolichocephalic: long and thin
• brachycephalic: short and broad
• mesocephalic: intermediate length and breadth

There exist several indices other than the cephalic index that are meant to measure certain attributes of the head, as well.

Scientific research throughout history

In 1764, Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton published a noteworthy contribution to craniometry: Mémoire sur les differences de la situation du grand trou occipital dans l’homme et dans les animaux (which translates as Memoir on the Different Positions of the Occipital Foramen in Man and Animals). Six years later, Pieter Camper, distinguished both as an artist and as an anatomist, published some lectures containing an account of his craniometrical methods, and these may be fairly claimed as having laid the foundation of all subsequent work. That work has been described above as anthropological, but as the studies thus defined are very varied in extent, it is necessary to consider the subdivisions into which they naturally fall. 1764 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton (May 29, 1716 - January 1, 1800) was a French naturalist. ... The word occipital refers to several areas of the human body in the occiput, the rear of the skull: Occipital bun Occipital lobe Occipital bone Lesser occipital nerve Greater occipital nerve This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... In anatomy, a foramen is any opening. ... Peter, Pieter, or usually Petrus Camper (May 11, 1722 in Leyden – April 7, 1789 in The Hague) was a Dutch anatomist. ...

In the first place, (omitting further reference to the artists), it has been explained that the measurements were first made with a view to elucidating the comparison of the skulls of men with those of other animals. This wide comparison constitutes the first subdivision of craniometric studies. It is further remarkable that among the first measurements employed angular determinations occur, and indeed the name of Camper is chiefly perpetuated in anthropological literature by the facial angle invented by that artist-anatomist.

Camper's work followed the lines of 18th century racial theories, where his measurements of facial angle were used to liken the skulls of non-Europeans to those of apes.

In the 19th century the names of notable contributors to the literature of craniometry quickly increased in number. While it is impossible to analyse each contribution, or even record a complete list of the names of the authors, it must be added that for the purposes of far-reaching comparisons of humans to other animals, craniometric methods were used by Paul Pierre Broca in France and by T. H. Huxley in England. Paul Pierre Broca Paul Pierre Broca (June 28, 1824 – July 9, 1880) was a French physician, anatomist and anthropologist. ... Thomas Huxley Thomas Henry Huxley F.R.S. (May 4, 1825 - June 29, 1895) was a British biologist, known as Darwins Bulldog for his defence of Charles Darwins theory of evolution. ...

Broca and Huxley cultivated similar comparative racial fields of research, but to these names that of Anders Retzius of Stockholm must be added. The chief claim of Retzius to distinction rests on the merits of his system of comparing various dimensions of the skull, and of a classification based on such comparisons. Anders Retzius (Lund October 13, 1796 – Stockholm April 18, 1860), was a Swedish professor of anatomy and a supervisor at the Karolinska Institute in Stockholm. ...

The misuse of data obtained from craniometry has been compared to phrenology as a pseudoscience. The apparent scientific support of craniometric theories for racism was used to the support the racist ideologies, and ultimately genocidal policies, of the Nazi party. The uses that racist ideologues and even reputable scientists made of craniometric measurements and conclusions have been thoroughly discussed by Stephen Jay Gould in The Mismeasure of Man (1981). A 19th century Phrenology chart Phrenology (from Greek: φρην, phrēn, mind; and λογος, logos, study) is a theory which claims to be able to determine character, personality traits, and criminality on the basis of the shape of the head (reading bumps). Developed by German physician Franz Joseph Gall around 1800, and... Phrenology is seen today as a classic example of pseudoscience. ... Genocide has been defined as the deliberate killing of people based on their ethnicity, nationality, race, religion, or (sometimes) politics, as well as other deliberate actions leading to the physical elimination of any of the above categories. ... The Nazi swastika symbol The National Socialist German Workers Party ( German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei), better known as the NSDAP or the Nazi Party was a political party that was led to power in Germany by Adolf Hitler in 1933. ... Stephen Jay Gould For the science fiction writer, see Steven Gould. ... Cover of the 1996 printing of The Mismeasure of Man. ...

However, brain volume data and other craniometric data is used in mainstream science to compare modern-day animal species, and to analyze the evolution of the human species in archeology.

Racial difference in brain size

In his 1839 Crania Americana, anthropologist Samuel George Morton reported that the mean cranial capacity of the skulls of Whites was 87 in³ (1,425 cm³), while that of Blacks was 78 in³ (1,278 cm³). Based on the measurement of 144 skulls of Native Americans, he reported an a figure of 82 in³ (1,344 cm³). Samuel George Morton (1799-1851) An American physician and natural scientist. ... A Hupa man, 1923 The scope of this indigenous peoples of the Americas article encompasses the definitions of indigenous peoples and the Americas as established in their respective articles. ...

Morton's work has been criticized by Stephen Jay Gould, who alleged in his 1981 book The Mismeasure of Man that Morton was guilty of fudging data and "overpacking" the skulls with filler. Gould writes that the differences are "trivial", but J. Philippe Rushton (1996) responds that a difference of only 1 cubic inch (16 cm³) equates to millions of neurons. Stephen Jay Gould For the science fiction writer, see Steven Gould. ... 1981 (MCMLXXXI) is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Cover of the 1996 printing of The Mismeasure of Man. ... John Philippe Rushton John Philippe (Phil) Rushton Ph. ...

In 1988, J. S. Michael remeasured a random sample of Morton's skulls and concluded that Morton had made very few errors. J. Philippe Rushton (1989) additionally reanalyzed Gould's retabulation, concluding that Morton had shown a pattern of decreasing brain size proceeding from East Asians, Europeans, and Africans. 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on a Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... John Philippe Rushton John Philippe (Phil) Rushton Ph. ...

In 1873, Paul Pierre Broca found the same pattern by weighing brains at autopsy. Other historical studies showing a Black-White difference in brain size include Bean (1906), Mall, (1909), Pearl, (1934) and Vint (1934). 1873 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calaber). ... Paul Pierre Broca Paul Pierre Broca (June 28, 1824 – July 9, 1880) was a French physician, anatomist and anthropologist. ... An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse to determine the cause and manner of a persons death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. ...

In his controversial 1995 work Race, Evolution, and Behavior, J. Philippe Rushton reported an average endocranial volume of 1,415 cm³ for "Orientals" [sic], 1,362 for Whites, and 1,268 for Blacks. When adjusted for average body size, the differences become more pronounced; i.e., the encephalization quotients (EQ) display greater differences than do absolute brain sizes (Jerisen, 1973, 2000; Rushton, 1991). Rushton (1991) found an EQ of 7.26 for East Asians as compared to 6.76 for Caucasians. Differences in brain size between Asians and Europeans sometimes do not appear until adjusted for body size (Rushton, 1997). In some cases Europeans averaged higher absolute brain sizes than East Asians but lower relative brain sizes when adjusted for body size (Rushton, 1994). John Philippe Rushton John Philippe (Phil) Rushton Ph. ... Sic is a Latin word meaning thus or so, used inside brackets [sic] to indicate that an unusual (or incorrect) spelling, phrase, or other preceding quoted material is intended to be read or printed exactly as shown, and is not a transcription error. ... Brain to body mass ratio (also known as the Encephalisation Quotient) is a method to quickly get a rough estimate of the possible intelligence of an organism. ...

Other studies that have shown similar patterns in average brain size include Ho et al. (1980), who measured 1,261 brains at autopsy, and Beals et al. (1984), who measured approximately 20,000 skulls, finding the same East Asian → European → African pattern. Other studies have shown the same pattern in average head size, including Rushton (1992), Rushton (1994), and the National Collaborative Perinatal Project ^[1] (described by Broman, Nichols, Shaugnessy, & Kennedy, 1987) which collected anthropometric data, including head measurements and IQ, on approximately 35,000 children from 1959 to 1974 (although the study began with over 50,000 subjects, some attrition occurred as with many longitudinal studies). Analyses of the data found the East Asian → White → Black pattern in head size and IQ at 4 months, 1 year, and 7 years of age. An autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination or an obduction, is a medical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse to determine the cause and manner of a persons death and to evaluate any disease or injury that may be present. ...

East Asian brains have greater width and breadth (i.e., are more brachycephalic) and are more spherically shaped than those of Europeans, which are more so than those of Africans. Africans tend to have longer and narrower (more dolichocephalic) brains (Beals et al., 1984; McShane, 1983; Rushton & Ankney, 2000). Beals et al. proposed that the longer and narrower African brain evolved for better heat dissipation in a warmer climate, while East Asians and Europeans evolved comparatively shorter and wider brains for thermoregulatory purposes in a cooler climate. Rushton & Ankney (2000, pp. 612-613) question the thermoregulatory hypothesis, instead positing that brachycephalization and sphericalization allow for greater brain size. At the same time, Rushton and Ankney believe it is possible that the need to thermoregulate in Africa may have selected against increasing brain size. The cephalic index is the ratio of the maximum breadth of the head to its maximum length, sometimes multiplied by 100 for convenience. ... The cephalic index is the ratio of the maximum breadth of the head to its maximum length, sometimes multiplied by 100 for convenience. ...

Rushton and Ankney (2000) found a pattern of descending prognathism, glabella size, postorbital constriction, and temporal fossae in African, European, and East Asian skulls and propose that these structures shrank over the course of evolution to allow greater brain size. Prognathism refers to a forward-slanting facial profile. ... The glabella is the space between the eyebrows and above the nose. ... The introduction to this article provides insufficient context for those unfamiliar with the subject matter. ...

Rushton has been accused by other researchers of misrepresenting the data. When they have reanalyzed the data, Zack Cernovsky et al. argue that many of Rushton's claims are incorrect.

Cranial vault size and shape have changed greatly during the last 150 years in the US. These changes must occur by early childhood because of the early development of the vault. The explanation for these changes may be related to the Flynn effect. The Flynn effect is the continued year-on-year rise of IQ test scores, an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at greatly varying rates. ...

See also

• Race
• Anthropometry
• Samuel George Morton

It has been suggested that Validity of human races be merged into this article or section. ... Anthropometry demonstrated in an exhibit from a 1921 eugenics conference. ... Samuel George Morton (1799-1851) An American physician and natural scientist. ...

References

• This article incorporates text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, a publication in the public domain.