Creek
Flag of the State of Muskogee (1799-1803)
Total population	50,000-60,000
Regions with significant populations	United States (Oklahoma, Alabama)
Language	English, Creek
Religion	Protestantism, other
Related ethnic groups	Five Civilized Tribes

The Creek are an American Indian people originally from the southeastern United States, also known by their original name Muscogee (or Muskogee), the name they use to identify themselves today. Mvskoke is their name in traditional spelling. Modern Muscogees live primarily in Oklahoma, Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. Their language, Mvskoke, is a member of the Creek branch of the Muskogean language family. The Seminole are close kin to the Muscogee and speak a Creek language as well. The Creeks are one of the Five Civilized Tribes. Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Creek_Nation. ... This article belongs in one or more categories. ... Official language(s) None Capital Oklahoma City Largest city Oklahoma City Area  Ranked 20th  - Total 69,960 sq mi (181,196 km²)  - Width 230 miles (370 km)  - Length 298 miles (480 km)  - % water 1. ... Official language(s) English Capital Montgomery Largest city Birmingham Area  Ranked 30th  - Total 52,419 sq mi (135,765 km²)  - Width 190 miles (306 km)  - Length 330 miles (531 km)  - % water 3. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... The Creek Language, also known as Muscogee (Mvskoke in Creek), is a Muskogean language spoken by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation and Seminole Indians in Florida and Oklahoma. ... Protestantism is one of three primary branches of Christianity. ... The Five Civilized Tribes is the term applied to five Aboriginal American nations which lived in the Southeastern United States before their removal to other parts of country, especially the future Oklahoma. ... A Sioux in traditional dress including war bonnet, circa 1908. ... Official language(s) None Capital Oklahoma City Largest city Oklahoma City Area  Ranked 20th  - Total 69,960 sq mi (181,196 km²)  - Width 230 miles (370 km)  - Length 298 miles (480 km)  - % water 1. ... Official language(s) English Capital Montgomery Largest city Birmingham Area  Ranked 30th  - Total 52,419 sq mi (135,765 km²)  - Width 190 miles (306 km)  - Length 330 miles (531 km)  - % water 3. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Creek Language, also known as Muscogee (Mvskoke in Creek), is a Muskogean language spoken by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation and Seminole Indians in Florida and Oklahoma. ... Pre-contact distribution of Muskogean languages Muskogean (also Muskhogean, Muskogee) is a language family of the U.S. Southeast. ... The Seminole are a Native American Indian people of Florida. ... The Five Civilized Tribes is the term applied to five Aboriginal American nations which lived in the Southeastern United States before their removal to other parts of country, especially the future Oklahoma. ...

Early history

The early historic Creeks were probably descendants of the mound builders of the Mississippian culture, and possibly related to the Utinahica of southern Georgia. More of a loose confederacy than a single tribe, the Muscogee lived in autonomous villages in river valleys throughout what are today the states of Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama and consisted of many ethnic groups speaking several distinct languages, such as the Hitchiti, Alabama, and Coushatta. Those who lived along the Ocmulgee River were called "Creek Indians" by British traders from South Carolina; eventually the name was applied to all of the various natives of the region. The Mississippian culture was a mound-building Native American culture that flourished in the Midwestern, Eastern, and Southeastern United States from approximately 900 to 1500 CE, varying regionally. ...

Pathogens tranferred to North America from the Eastern Hemisphere in the 16th and 17th centuries decimated the Mississippian population throughout the South, which opened the headwaters of the Tennessee River to Cherokee expansion to the south, resulting the Battle of Taliwa in 1755. Starting in the 17th century, the Creeks increasingly engaged in trade with their new British neighbors, receiving European trade goods in exchange for deerskins and Indian slaves captured in Florida and elsewhere. In the eighteenth century, Creeks began to intermarry with British traders as well as runaway African slaves. Geographical distances and differences in interaction with Europeans eventually led to the Creek towns becoming increasingly divided between the Lower Towns of the Georgia frontier on the Chattahoochee River, Ocmulgee River, and Flint River and the Upper Towns of the Alabama River Valley. The Lower Towns included Coweta, Kasihta (Cusseta, Cofitachiqui), Upper Chehaw (Chiaha), Hitchiti, Oconee, Ocmulgee, Okawaigi, Apalachee, Yamasee (Altamaha), Ocfuskee, Sawokli, and Tamali. The Upper Towns included Tuckabatchee, Abhika, Coosa (Kusa; the dominant people of East Tennessee and North Georgia during the Spanish explorations), Itawa (original inhabitants of the Etowah Indian Mounds), Hothliwahi (Ullibahali), Hilibi, Eufaula, Wakokai, Atasi, Alibamu, Coushatta (Koasati; they had absorbed the Kaski/Casqui and the Tali), and Tuskegee ("Napochi" in the de Luna chronicles). For other uses, see Cherokee (disambiguation). ... East Tennessee is a name given to approximately the eastern third of the state of Tennessee. ... The mountainous northern region of the State of Georgia; inahabited formerly by the Cherokee, the counties that comprise North Georgia have experience fully every episode in the history of the State, northwest Georgia being the site of several major battles in the War Between the States, such as Chickamauga and... The Etowah Indian Mounds is an archeological site in Bartow County, Georgia south of Cartersville, Georgia in the United States. ... The Coushatta (also Koasati) are a Native American people living primarily in the U.S. state of Louisiana. ...

Revolutionary era

Like many Native American groups east of the Mississippi River, the Creeks were divided over which side to take in the American Revolutionary War. The Lower Creeks remained neutral; the Upper Creeks allied with the British and fought the colonial rebels. The Mississippi River, derived from the old Ojibwe word misi-ziibi meaning great river (gichi-ziibi big river at its headwaters), is the longest river in the United States; the second-longest is the Missouri River, which flows into the Mississippi. ... Combatants American Revolutionaries, France, The Netherlands, Spain, American Indians Great Britain, German mercenaries, Loyalists, American Indians Canadian Indians Commanders George Washington, Comte de Rochambeau, Nathanael Greene, Bernardo de Gálvez William Howe, Henry Clinton, Charles Cornwallis (more commanders) The American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), also known as the American War...

This sketch by John Trumbull shows Creek leader Hopothle Mico, probably at the time of the signing of the Treaty of New York in 1790. (more)

After the rebellion officially ended in 1783, the Creeks discovered Great Britain had ceded Creek lands to the new United States. The State of Georgia began to expand into Creek territory. Creek statesman Alexander McGillivray rose to prominence as he organized pan-Indian resistance to this encroachment and received arms from the Spanish in Florida to fight trespassing Georgians. McGillivray worked to create a sense of Creek nationalism and to centralize Creek authority, struggling against village leaders who individually sold land to the United States. With the Treaty of New York in 1790, McGillivray ceded a significant portion of Creek lands to the United States under the administration of George Washington in exchange for federal recognition of Creek sovereignty within the remaining territory. However, McGillivray died in 1793 and Georgia continued to expand into Creek territory. Image File history File links AMcgillvray. ... Image File history File links AMcgillvray. ... John Trumbull, 1756–1843 John Trumbull (June 6, 1756 – November 10, 1843) was a famous American artist from the time of the American Revolutionary War. ... The Treaty of New york was a treaty, signed in 1790 between leaders of the Native American Creek people, and Henry Knox, then Secretary of War for the United States. ... 1783 was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Alexander McGillivray (1750 – 17 February 1793) was a leader of the Creek (Muscogee) Indians during and after the American Revolution who worked to establish a Creek national identity and centralized leadership as a means of resisting American expansion onto Creek territory. ... The Treaty of New york was a treaty, signed in 1790 between leaders of the Native American Creek people, and Henry Knox, then Secretary of War for the United States. ... 1790 was a common year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... George Washington (February 22, 1732–December 14, 1799) commanded Americas war for independence (1775–1783), and was the first President of the United States, from 1789 to 1797. ... 1793 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

Red Stick War

The Creek War of 1813-1814, also known as the Red Stick War, began as a civil war within the Creek Nation, only to become enmeshed within the War of 1812. Inspired by the fiery eloquence of the Shawnee leader Tecumseh and their own religious leaders, Creeks from the Upper Towns, known to the Americans as Red Sticks, sought to aggressively resist white immigration and the "civilizing programs" administered by U.S. Indian Agent Benjamin Hawkins. Red Stick leaders William Weatherford (Red Eagle), Peter McQueen and Menawa violently clashed with the Lower Creeks led by William McIntosh, who were allied with the Americans. The Creek War of 1813-1814 began as a civil war within the Creek Nation. ... 1813 is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... A civil war is a war in which parties within the same culture, society or nationality fight for political power or control of an area. ... Combatants United States Native Americans United Kingdom Canadian colonial forces Native Americans Native Canadians Commanders James Madison Winfield Scott George Prevost Tecumseh† Strength •U.S. Regular Army: 35,800 •Rangers: 3,049 •Militia: 458,463* •US Navy & US Marines: (at start of war): •Commissioned vessels: 22 •Indigenous peoples: ? •British & Provincial... The Shawnee, or Shawano, are a people native to North America. ... This 1848 drawing of Tecumseh was based on a sketch done from life in 1808. ... Red Sticks is the English term for a faction of Creek Indians (known as mvskoke in the language). ... Sen. ... William Weatherford, also known as Red Eagle (1780–March 24, 1824), was a Creek (Muscogee) American Indian who led the Creek War offensive during the War of 1812 against the United States. ... Peter McQueen ca. ... Menawas portrait was painted by Charles Bird King when Menawa visited Washington, D.C. in 1826 to protest the Treaty of Indian Springs. ... William McIntosh William McIntosh (1775-1825), also known as White Warrior, was the son of Captain William McIntosh, a member of a prominent Savannah, Georgia family sent into the Creek Nation to recruit them to fight for the British during the Revolutionary War {Captain McIntoshs mother was a sister...

On August 30, 1813, Red Sticks led by Red Eagle attacked the American outpost of Fort Mims near Mobile, Alabama, where white Americans and their Indian allies had gathered. The Red Sticks took the fort and a bloody clash ensued, as prisoners — including women and children — were killed. Nearly 250 people were killed, spreading panic throughout the American southwestern frontier. August 30 is the 242nd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (243rd in leap years), with 123 days remaining. ... 1813 is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ... Fort Mims Massacre External Links A Drawing of Fort Mims Description of Massacre at Rootsweb Categories: Battles of the Creek War | 1813 ... Nickname: The Azalea City Coordinates: Country US State Alabama County Mobile Founded 1702 Incorporated 1814 Mayor Sam Jones Area    - City 412. ...

In response to the massacre at Fort Mims, Tennessee, Georgia, and the Mississippi Territory sent armies deep into Creek country. Outnumbered and poorly armed, the Red Sticks put up a desperate fight from their wilderness strongholds. On March 27, 1814, General Andrew Jackson's Tennessee militia, aided by the 39th U. S. Infantry Regiment and Cherokee and Creek allies, finally crushed Red Stick resistance at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend on the Tallapoosa River. Official language(s) English Capital Nashville Largest city Memphis Area  Ranked 36th  - Total 42,169 sq mi (109,247 km²)  - Width 120 miles (195 km)  - Length 440 miles (710 km)  - % water 2. ... all about mississippi! Mississippi state bird is a mocking bird mississippi state tree is mangoila tree ... March 27 is the 86th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (87th in leap years). ... 1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Andrew Old Hickory Jackson (March 15, 1767– June 8, 1845) was the seventh President of the United States (1829-1837), first governor of Florida (1821), general of the Battle of New Orleans (1815), a co-founder of the Democratic Party, and the eponym of the era of Jacksonian democracy. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... For other uses, see Cherokee (disambiguation). ... Combatants Creek Indians Red Sticks United States Cherokee Creek allies Commanders Menawa Andrew Jackson Strength 1,000 Red Stick Creek about 2,000 infantry 700 mounted infantry 600 Cherokee and Lower Creeks Casualties 800 49 killed 154 wounded The Battle of Horseshoe Bend was fought during the War of 1812... The Tallapoosa River is a river that runs from the southern end of the Appalachian Mountains in Georgia in the United States south and west into Alabama. ...

Though the Red Sticks had been crushed — altogether, about 3,000 Upper Creeks died in the war — the remnants of the Upper Creek resistance held out for several months. In August of 1814, exhausted and starving, they surrendered to Jackson at Wetumpka (near the present city of Montgomery, Alabama). On August 9, 1814, the Creeks were forced to sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, which ended the conflict and required them to cede some 20 million acres (81,000 km²) of land - more than half of their ancestral territorial holdings - to the United States. Even those Creek who had fought alongside Jackson were compelled to cede territory, as Jackson held them responsible for allowing the Red Sticks to rise up. The State of Alabama was carved out of this domain and admitted to the United States in 1819. 1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Montgomery skyline from the banks of the Alabama River Montgomery is the capital of the U.S. state of Alabama. ... August 9 is the 221st day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (222nd in leap years), with 144 days remaining. ... 1814 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... The Treaty of Fort Jackson, also known as the Treaty with the Creeks, 1814 was signed on August 9, 1814 at Fort Jackson near Wetumpka, Alabama following the defeat of the Red Stick ( Upper Creek) resistance by United States forces at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend on the banks of...

Removal to the West

After the War of 1812, some Creek leaders such as William McIntosh signed a number of treaties that ceded more and more land to Georgia. Eventually, the Creek Confederacy enacted a law that made further land cessions a capital offense. Nevertheless, on February 12, 1825, McIntosh and other chiefs signed the Treaty of Indian Springs, which gave up most of the remaining Creek lands in Georgia. [1] William McIntosh William McIntosh (1775-1825), also known as White Warrior, was the son of Captain William McIntosh, a member of a prominent Savannah, Georgia family sent into the Creek Nation to recruit them to fight for the British during the Revolutionary War {Captain McIntoshs mother was a sister... February 12 is the 43rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1825 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Treaty of Indian Springs - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

Menawa visited Washington, D.C. in 1826 to protest the Treaty of Indian Springs. Painted by Charles Bird King.

McIntosh was a cousin of Georgia governor George Troup, who saw the Creeks as a threat to white expansion in the region, and had been elected for the Democratic party on a platform of Indian removal. McIntosh's motives have been variously interpreted. Some believed he had been bribed to sell out his people; others insisted he had realized that the Creeks were going to lose their lands eventually, and that he got the best possible deal for them. [2] After the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty, McIntosh was assassinated (31 May 1825) by Creeks led by Menawa. (Major Ridge of the Cherokees later made the same choices as McIntosh, and paid the same price.) Image File history File links Painting by Charles Bird King, early 1800s. ... Image File history File links Painting by Charles Bird King, early 1800s. ... Menawas portrait was painted by Charles Bird King when Menawa visited Washington, D.C. in 1826 to protest the Treaty of Indian Springs. ... Treaty of Indian Springs - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... George M. Troup George Michael Troup (September 8, 1780 – April 26, 1856) was an American politician who served as the Governor of Georgia during the mid-1820s. ... Indian Removal was a nineteenth century policy of the government of the United States that sought to relocate American Indian (or Native American) tribes living east of the Mississippi River to lands west of the river. ... The United States Senate is the upper house of the U.S. Congress, smaller than the United States House of Representatives. ... May 31 is the 151st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (152nd in leap years), with 214 days remaining. ... 1825 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... This portrait of Major Ridge was painted by Charles Bird King in 1834. ... For other uses, see Cherokee (disambiguation). ...

The Creek National Council, led by Opothle Yohola, protested to the United States that the Treaty of Indian Springs was fraudulent. President John Quincy Adams was sympathetic, and eventually the treaty was nullified in a new agreement, the Treaty of Washington (1826). [3] Writes historian R. Douglas Hurt: "The Creeks had accomplished what no Indian nation had ever done or would do again — achieve the annulment of a ratified treaty."^[1] Portrait of Opothleyahola during the 1830s Opothleyahola, also spelled Opothle Yohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilth Yahola, and Hopoeitheyohola, (about 1798 – March 27, 1863) was a Muscogee Creek Indian chief, noted as a brilliant orator and spokesperson of the Upper Creek Council. ... John Quincy Adams (July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was an American lawyer, diplomat, politician, and President of the United States (March 4, 1825 – March 3, 1829). ... Opothleyahola The 1826 Treaty of Washington was a settlement between the United States government and the Creek National Council of Native Americans, led by their spokesman Opothleyahola. ...

However, Governor Troup of Georgia ignored the new treaty and began to forcibly remove the Indians under the terms of the earlier treaty. At first, President Adams attempted to intervene with federal troops, but Troup called out the militia, and Adams, fearful of a civil war, conceded. As he explained to his intimates, "The Indians are not worth going to war over."

Although the Creeks had been forced from Georgia, with many Lower Creeks moving to the Indian Territory, there were still about 20,000 Upper Creeks living in Alabama. However, the state moved to abolish tribal governments and extend state laws over the Creeks. Opothle Yohola appealed to the administration of President Andrew Jackson for protection from Alabama; when none was forthcoming, the Treaty of Cusseta was signed on 24 March 1832, which divided up Creek lands into individual allotments. [4] Creeks could either sell their allotments and received funds to remove to the west, or stay in Alabama and submit to state laws. Land speculators and squatters began to defraud Creeks out of their allotments, and violence broke out, leading to the so-called "Creek War of 1836." Secretary of War Lewis Cass dispatched General Winfield Scott to end the violence by forcibly removing the Creeks to the Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River. Indian Territory in 1836 Indian Territory in 1891 Indian Country redirects here. ... Portrait of Opothleyahola during the 1830s Opothleyahola, also spelled Opothle Yohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilth Yahola, and Hopoeitheyohola, (about 1798 – March 27, 1863) was a Muscogee Creek Indian chief, noted as a brilliant orator and spokesperson of the Upper Creek Council. ... Andrew Old Hickory Jackson (March 15, 1767– June 8, 1845) was the seventh President of the United States (1829-1837), first governor of Florida (1821), general of the Battle of New Orleans (1815), a co-founder of the Democratic Party, and the eponym of the era of Jacksonian democracy. ... Creek land ceded by the Treaty of Cusseta is shaded in blue. ... March 24 is the 83rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (84th in leap years). ... 1832 was a leap year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... The Secretary of War was a member of the Presidents Cabinet, beginning with George Washingtons administration. ... Lewis Cass Campaign poster for 12th United States Presidential campaign, 1848. ... Winfield Scott Winfield Scott (June 13, 1786 – May 29, 1866) was a United States Army general, diplomat, and presidential candidate. ... Indian Territory in 1836 Indian Territory in 1891 Indian Country redirects here. ... The Mississippi River, derived from the old Ojibwe word misi-ziibi meaning great river (gichi-ziibi big river at its headwaters), is the longest river in the United States; the second-longest is the Missouri River, which flows into the Mississippi. ...

The official website of the Muscogees describes the next phase in their history:

In the new nation the Lower Muscogees located their farms and plantations on the Arkansas and Verdigris rivers. The Upper Muscogees re-established their ancient towns on the Canadian River and its northern branches. The tribal towns of both groups continued to send representatives to a National Council which met near High Springs. The Muscogee Nation as a whole began to experience a new prosperity. [5]

Muscogees today

A Creek U.S. Army soldier preparing frybread during a 2004 pow-wow in Iraq.

Most Muscogees were removed to Indian Territory, although some remained behind. There are a number of Muscogees in Alabama living near Poarch Creek Reservation in Atmore (northeast of Mobile), as well as a number of Creeks in essentially undocumented ethnic towns in Florida. The Alabama reservation includes a bingo hall and holds an annual powwow on Thanksgiving. Additionally, Muscogee descendants of varying degrees of acculturation live throughout the southeastern United States. Image File history File links Making_Frybread. ... Image File history File links Making_Frybread. ... The United States Army is the largest branch of the United States armed forces and has primary responsibility for land-based military operations. ... Spc. ... This article is about a Native American gathering. ... Indian Territory in 1836 Indian Territory in 1891 Indian Country redirects here. ... Official language(s) English Capital Montgomery Largest city Birmingham Area  Ranked 30th  - Total 52,419 sq mi (135,765 km²)  - Width 190 miles (306 km)  - Length 330 miles (531 km)  - % water 3. ... Atmore is a city located in Escambia County, Alabama. ... Nickname: The Azalea City Coordinates: Country US State Alabama County Mobile Founded 1702 Incorporated 1814 Mayor Sam Jones Area    - City 412. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... In 1987 the U.S. Supreme Court recognized that as sovereign political entities, Native American tribes could operate gaming facilities free of state regulation. ... This article is about a Native American gathering. ... For thanksgiving (lowercase t) as a religious or theological idea, see gratitude. ...

The Muscogee (Creek) Nation of Oklahoma operates a modern government from its capital complex in Okmulgee, Oklahoma. As of February 22, 2006, the Nation reports a service population exceeding 60,882 enrolled tribal members. The tribal govenrment operates a budget in excess of $106 million, has over 2,400 employees, and maintains tribal facilities and programs in eight administrative districts. The Nation operates several significant tribal enterprises, including the Muscogee Document Imaging Company; travel plazas in Okmulgee, Muskogee and Cromwell, Oklahoma; construction, technology and staffing services; and major casinos in Tulsa and Okmulgee. The tribal population is fully integrated into the larger culture and economy of Oklahoma, with Muscogee Nation citizens making significant contributions in every field of endeavor, while continuing to preserve and share a vibrant tribal identity through events such as annual festivals, ball-games, and language classes. The Nation's historic old Council House, built in 1878 and located in downtown Okmulgee, was completely restored in the 1990's and now serves as a museum of tribal history. Okmulgee is a city located in Okmulgee County, Oklahoma. ... February 22 is the 53rd day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... // Native American gambling enterprises comprise gambling businesses operated on Indian reservations or tribal land, which have limited sovereignty and therefore the ability to exist outside of direct state regulation. ... Downtown Tulsa Tulsa is the second-largest city in Oklahoma. ...

Famous Creek

Jim Pepper was a jazz musician who combined elements of Native American music and jazz. Jim Pepper (b. ...

Will Sampson, an actor most notable for his performance in Forman's One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest (1975). Will Sampson (September 27, 1934 - June 3, 1987), a Native American, was an American actor and painter. ... One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest is a 1975 film directed by Miloš Forman. ...

Greg T. Walker, bassist and vocalist for Southern rock band Blackfoot. Southern rock is a style of rock music that was very popular in the 1970s, and retains a fan base to the present. ... Blackfoot are a Southern rock band from Jacksonville, Florida. ...

See also

• Creek language
• Creek mythology
• LostWorlds.org | Ocmulgee Mounds
• Ocmulgee National Monument
• Opothleyahola

The Creek Language, also known as Muscogee (Mvskoke in Creek), is a Muskogean language spoken by the Muscogee (Creek) Nation and Seminole Indians in Florida and Oklahoma. ... The Creek are a tribe of Native Americans from the southeastern United States. ... The earthlodge at Ocmulgee Ocmulgee National Monument is a U.S. National Monument located just east of Macon, Georgia. ... Portrait of Opothleyahola during the 1830s Opothleyahola, also spelled Opothle Yohola, Opothleyoholo, Hu-pui-hilth Yahola, and Hopoeitheyohola, (about 1798 – March 27, 1863) was a Muscogee Creek Indian chief, noted as a brilliant orator and spokesperson of the Upper Creek Council. ...

Notes

1. ^ Hurt, R. Douglas, The Indian Frontier: 1763-1846 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 2002), p. 148.

External links

• LostWorlds.org | Ocmulgee Mounds: Creek/Muskogee Origins
• Muscogee (Creek) Nation of Oklahoma (official site)
• Creek (Muskogee) by Kenneth W. McIntosh -- Encyclopedia of North American Indians
• History of the Creek Indians in Georgia
• Poarch Creek Indians in Alabama
• http://www.poarchcreekindians.org/tribal_history.htm
• Comprehensive Creek Language materials online
• Bartram Seeks News of the Creeks and Seminoles. About to ascend the St. John's River, in April of 1774, William Bartram seeks information about a recent incident between the local settlers and Indians.