Unfinished portrait miniature of Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper, 1657.

Oliver Cromwell (April 25, 1599 – September 3, 1658) was an English military leader and politician. After leading the overthrow of the British monarchy, he ruled England, Scotland, and Ireland as Lord Protector from December 16, 1653 until his death, which is believed to have been due either to malaria or poisoning. Download high resolution version (529x650, 47 KB)Unfinished portrait miniature of Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper. ... Download high resolution version (529x650, 47 KB)Unfinished portrait miniature of Oliver Cromwell by Samuel Cooper. ... Some links to this page should perhaps link to miniature (illuminated manuscript). ... Unfinished portrait miniature of Oliver Cromwell, 1657. ... April 25 is the 115th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (116th in leap years). ... Events Swedish King Sigismund III Vasa is replaced by his brother Charles IX of Sweden. ... September 3 is the 246th day of the year (247th in leap years). ... Events January 13 - Edward Sexby, who has plotted against Oliver Cromwell, dies in Tower of London February 6 - Swedish troops of Charles X Gustav of Sweden cross from Sweden to Denmark over frozen sea May 1 - Publication of Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and The Garden of Cyrus by Thomas Browne September... Royal motto: Dieu et mon droit (French: God and my right) Englands location within the UK Official language English de facto Capital London de facto Largest city London Area  - Total Ranked 1st UK 130,395 km² Population  - Total (2001)  - Density Ranked 1st UK 49,138,831 377/km² Religion... The British monarch or Sovereign is the monarch and head of state of the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, and is the source of all executive, judicial and (as the Queen-in-Parliament) legislative power. ... Royal motto: Dieu et mon droit (French: God and my right) Englands location within the UK Official language English de facto Capital London de facto Largest city London Area  - Total Ranked 1st UK 130,395 km² Population  - Total (2001)  - Density Ranked 1st UK 49,138,831 377/km² Religion... Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba) is a country in northwest Europe, occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain. ... The Lord Protector was the head of state during the brief period of the republic or Commonwealth in Great Britain and Ireland. ... December 16 is the 350th day of the year (351st in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Events February 2 - New Amsterdam (later renamed New York City) is incorporated. ... Red blood cell infected with Malaria (Italian: bad air; formerly called ague or marsh fever in English) is an infectious disease which in humans causes about 500 million infections and 2 million deaths annually, mainly in the tropics and sub-Saharan Africa. ...

At the outset of the English Civil War, Cromwell began his military career by raising a cavalry troop, known as the Ironsides Cavalry, which became the basis of his New Model Army. Cromwell's leadership in the Battle of Marston Moor (in 1644) brought him to great prominence. As a leader of the Parliamentarian cause, and commander of the New Model Army, (informally known as the Roundheads), he defeated King Charles I, thus bringing to an end the monarchy's claims to absolute power. The English Civil War (or Wars) refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651, specifically to the first (1642–1645) and second (1648–1649) civil wars between the supporters of King Charles I and the supporters of... Ironside was the name given to a trooper in the cavalry formed by English political leader Oliver Cromwell in the 17th century. ... This article deals with the English Civil War army. ... The Battle of Marston Moor, one of the decisive battles of the English Civil War, took place on July 2, 1644. ... Events February to August - Explorer Abel Tasmans second expedition for the Dutch East India Company maps the north coast of Australia. ... A parliamentarian is a specialist in parliamentary procedure. ... This article deals with the English Civil War army. ... The Roundheads was the nickname given to supporters of the Parliamentarian cause in the English Civil War. ... Charles I (19 November 1600–30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625, until his death. ... For related meanings see also Monarch (disambiguation) A monarchy, (from the Greek monos, one, and archein, to rule) is a form of government that has a monarch as Head of State. ...

In 2003, Cromwell was ranked 10th in a popular BBC poll of "Great Britons." 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was formed in 1927 by means of a royal charter from the Crown. ... In 2002, the BBC conducted a vote to discover the 100 Greatest Britons of all time. ...

Family

Oliver Cromwell descended from Catherine Cromwell (born circa 1483), an older sister of Tudor statesman Thomas Cromwell. Catherine was married to Morgan ap Williams, son of William ap Yevan and Joan Tudor. There is speculation that Joan was an illegitimate daughter of Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford. Events The São Tomé settlement is founded. ... The Tudor dynasty or House of Tudor (Welsh Twdwr) is a series of five monarchs of Welsh origin who ruled England from 1485 until 1603. ... The term statesman is a respectful term used to refer to diplomats, politicians, and other notable figures of state. ... Thomas Cromwell: detail from a portrait by Hans Holbein, 1532-3 Thomas Cromwell, 1st Earl of Essex ( 1485 - July 28, 1540) was an English statesman, one of the most important political figures of the reign of Henry VIII of England. ... Jasper Tudor, 1st Duke of Bedford (ca 1431- December 21/26, 1495) was the uncle of King Henry VII of England and the architect of his successful conquest of England and Wales in 1485. ... The titles of Earl or Duke of Bedford were created several times in the peerage of England. ...

Although Catherine married, her children kept her name, possibly to maintain their connection with their famous uncle. The family line continued through Richard Cromwell (c. 1500–1544), Henry Cromwell (c. 1524–January 6, 1603), then to Oliver's father Robert Cromwell, Esquire (c. 1560–1617), who married Elizabeth Steward or Stewart (1564–1654) on April 25, 1599, the day she delivered him a son. Events Europes population was ~60 million. ... Events April 11 - Battle of Ceresole - French forces under the Comte dEnghien defeat Imperial forces under the Marques Del Vasto near Turin. ... Events March 1, 1524/5 - Giovanni da Verrazano lands near Cape Fear (approx. ... January 6 is the 6th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... Events March 24 - Elizabeth I of England dies and is succeeded by her cousin King James VI of Scotland, uniting the crowns of Scotland and England April 28 – Funeral of Elizabeth I of England in Westminster Abbey July 17 or July 19 - Sir Walter Raleigh arrested for treason. ... Events February 27 - The Treaty of Berhick, which would expel the French from Scotland, is signed by England and the Congregation of Scotland The first tulip bulb was brought from Turkey to the Netherlands. ... Events Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Ahmed I (1603-1617) to Mustafa I (1617-1623). ... Events March 8 - Naples bans kissing in public under the penalty of death June 22 - Fort Caroline, the first French attempt at colonizing the New World September 10 - The Battle of Kawanakajima Ottoman Turks invade Malta Modern pencil becomes common in England Conquistadors crossed the Pacific Spanish found a colony... Events April 5 - Signing of the Treaty of Westminster, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. ... April 25 is the 115th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (116th in leap years). ... Events Swedish King Sigismund III Vasa is replaced by his brother Charles IX of Sweden. ...

Another interesting feature of the Cromwell bloodline is that the mother's maiden name, unlike the argument above, might have been kept as the surname for a different purpose: to disguise the male side of the family's heritage instead of merely accentuating the female's side from Thomas Cromwell. This heritage goes through the Tudors, de Valois, and Wittelsbach—three royal dynasties of England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire, respectively. The Valois Dynasty succeeded the Capetian Dynasty as rulers of France from 1328- 1589. ... The Wittelsbach family were the ruling dynasty of the German kingdom of Bavaria from 1180 to 1918 and of the Rhine Palatinate from 1214 until 1805; in 1815 the latter territory was incorporated into Bavaria, which had been a kingdom since 1806. ... Royal motto: Dieu et mon droit (French: God and my right) Englands location within the UK Official language English de facto Capital London de facto Largest city London Area  - Total Ranked 1st UK 130,395 km² Population  - Total (2001)  - Density Ranked 1st UK 49,138,831 377/km² Religion... The crown of the Holy Roman Empire (2nd half of the 10th century), now held in the Vienna Schatzkammer. ...

His alleged paternal ancestor Jasper Tudor was a younger brother of Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond and uncle to his son Henry VII of England. Jasper was arguably the architect of the Tudor victory in the Battle of Bosworth Field against Richard III of England on August 22, 1485. Leading to the successful conquest of England and Wales by his nephew which established the hegemony of the Tudor dynasty at the close of the Wars of the Roses. Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond (~1430-November 1, 1456) was the father of King Henry VII of England. ... Henry VII (January 28, 1457 – April 21, 1509), King of England, Lord of Ireland (August 22, 1485 – April 21, 1509), was the founder of the Tudor dynasty and is generally acknowledged as one of Englands most successful kings. ... The Battle of Bosworth or Bosworth Field was an important battle during the Wars of the Roses in 15th century England. ... Richard III (October 2, 1452 – August 22, 1485) was the King of England from 1483 until his death and the last king from the House of York. ... August 22 is the 234th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (235th in leap years), with 131 days remaining. ... Events August 22 - Battle of Bosworth Field is fought between the armies of King Richard III of England and rival claimant to the throne of England Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. ... National motto: Cymru am byth (Welsh: Wales for ever) Waless location within the UK Official languages English and Welsh Capital Cardiff Largest city Cardiff First Minister Rhodri Morgan Area  - Total Ranked 3rd UK 20,779 km² Population  - Total (2001)  - Density Ranked 3rd UK 2,903,085 140/km² NUTS... Hegemony is the dominance of one group over other groups, with or without the threat of force, to the extent that, for instance, the dominant party can dictate the terms of trade to its advantage; or more broadly, that cultural perspectives become skewed to favor the dominant group. ... The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) is the common name generally given to the intermittent civil war fought over the throne of England between adherents of the House of Lancaster and the House of York. ...

Both Edmund and Jasper Tudor were sons of Owen Tudor and Catherine of Valois, daughter of Charles VI of France and Isabeau de Bavière. Catherine was also widow of Henry V of England. Her mother Isabeau was the daughter of Stephan III, Duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt and Thadea Visconti. Owen (or Owain) Tudor (c. ... Catherine of Valois (27 October 1401 – 3 January 1437) was the Queen consort of England from 1420 till 1422. ... Charles VI the Well-Beloved, later known as the Mad (French: Charles VI le Bien-Aimé, later known as le Fol) (December 3, 1368 – October 21, 1422) was a King of France (1380 – 1422) and a member of the Valois Dynasty. ... Isabeau de Bavière (also Isabella of Bavaria-Ingolstadt) (about 1369 – September 24, 1435) was a Queen Consort of France (1385 - 1422) after marrying Charles VI of France, a member of the Valois Dynasty, on July 17, 1385. ... Alternate uses: see widow (typesetting). ... Henry V Henry V, (August 9 or September 16, 1387 – August 31, 1422), King of England, son of Henry IV by Mary de Bohun, was born at Monmouth, Wales, in September 1387. ...

Early life

Oliver was born in Huntingdon, in the county of Huntingdonshire in East Anglia. In 1616 he enrolled at Sidney Sussex College, University of Cambridge, a recently-founded college with a strong Puritan ethos. However, he apparently stayed for only one year, before his father's death caused him to return home. This article is about the English town of Huntingdon. ... Originally, a county was the land under the jurisdiction of a count (in Great Britain, an earl, though the original earldoms covered larger areas) by reason of that office. ... Huntingdonshire (abbreviated Hunts) is a part of England around Huntingdon, which is currently administered as a local government district of Cambridgeshire. ... Norfolk and Suffolk, the core area of East Anglia. ... Full name Sidney Sussex College Motto Dieu me garde de calomnie God preserve me from calumny Named after Lady Frances Sidney, Countess of Sussex Previous names - Established 1596 Sister College St Johns College Master Prof. ... The University of Cambridge is the second-oldest university in the English-speaking world. ... The Puritans were members of a group of radical Protestants which developed in England after the Reformation. ...

He subsequently was a gentleman farmer, but had to sell his farm and land to repay debts he had accumulated, as his grandfather had bequeathed land but not money to the family. Already a devout member of the Puritan sect, he became an evangelical member. The term gentleman (from Latin gentilis, belonging to a race or gens, and man, cognate with the French word gentilhomme, the Spanish hombre gentil, and the Italian gentil huomo), in its original and strict signification, denoted a man of good family, the Latin generosus (its invariable translation in English-Latin... The Puritans were members of a group of radical Protestants which developed in England after the Reformation. ... Evangelical has several distinct meanings: In its original sense, it means belonging or related to the Gospel (Greek: euangelion - good news) of the New Testament. ...

There is a tradition that Cromwell and the future Charles I met as children, apparently a scuffle broke out and ended with Cromwell knocking Charles down. However, this is almost certainly mythical.

Member of Parliament

Having decided against following an uncle to Virginia, he instead became the Member of Parliament (MP) for Huntingdon in the Parliament of 1628–1629. His maiden speech was the defence of a radical democrat who had argued in an unauthorised pamphlet in favour of giving the vote to all men. He was also prominent in defending the people of The Fens from wealthy landowners who wanted to drive them off their land. State nickname: Old Dominion Other U.S. States Capital Richmond Largest city Virginia Beach Governor Mark R. Warner Official languages English Area 110,862 km² (35th)  - Land 102,642 km²  - Water 8,220 km² (7. ... A Member of Parliament, or MP, is a representative elected by the voters of an electoral district to a parliament; in the Westminster system, specifically to the lower house. ... The debating chamber or hemicycle of the European Parliament in Brussels. ... Events March 1 - writs were issued in February 1628 by Charles I of England that every county in England (not just seaport towns) pay ship tax by this date. ... Events March 4 - Massachusetts Bay Colony is granted a Royal charter. ... A maiden speech is the first speech given by a newly elected representative in such bodies as the House of Commons or the United States House of Representatives. ... Democracy is a form of government under which the power to alter the laws and structures of government lies, ultimately, with the citizenry. ... The Fens may also refer to the Back Bay Fens, park in Boston, Massachusetts. ...

Charles I ruled without a Parliament for the next eleven years and alienated many people by his policies of raising extra-parliamentary taxes and imposing his Catholicism-influenced vision of Protestantism on the Church of England. When he was forced by shortage of funds to call a Parliament again in 1640, Oliver Cromwell was one of many MPs who bitterly opposed voting for any new taxes until the King agreed to govern with the consent of Parliament on both civil and religious issues. The failure to solve this crisis led directly to civil war breaking out between Parliamentarians (supporters of the power of Parliament) and Royalists (supporters of the King). Cromwell was a passionate supporter of the Parliament, primarily on religious grounds. However, he was not an accomplished speaker and did not become a leader of the Parliamentary cause until well into the civil war. The name Charles I is used to refer to numerous persons in history: Kings: Charles I of England, Scotland, and Ireland Charles I of France (also known as Charles the Bald) Charles I of Spain (also known as Charles V of the German Empire) Charles I of Romania Charles I...

Although he was later involved in the King's overthrow and execution, Cromwell did not start the civil war as a radical republican, but with the intention of forcing Charles to reign with the consent of Parliament and with a more consensual, Protestant, religious policy.

Religious Beliefs

Cromwell's understanding of religion and politics were very closely intertwined. He was a committed Puritan Protestant, believing that salvation was open to all who obeyed the teachings of the Bible and acted according to their own conscience. He was passionately opposed to the Roman Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of Papal and Clerical authority and which he blamed for tyranny and persecution of Protestants in Europe. For this reason, he was bitterly opposed to Charles I's reforms of the Church of England, which introduced Catholic-style Bishops and Prayer Books in place of Bible study. Cromwell's associations of Catholicism and persecution were deepened with the Irish Rebellion of 1641, which were marked by massacres (wildly exagerated in Puritan circles in Britain) by Irish Catholics of English and Scottish Protestant settlers. This would later be one of the reasons why Cromwell acted so harshly in his military campaign in Ireland. The Puritans were members of a group of radical Protestants which developed in England after the Reformation. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... The Bible (From Greek (τα) βιβλια, (ta) biblia, (the) books, plural of βιβλιον, biblion, book, originally a diminutive of βιβλος, biblos, which in turn is derived from βυβλος—byblos, meaning papyrus, from the ancient Phoenician city of Byblos which exported this writing material), is a word applied to sacred scriptures. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England and acts as the mother and senior branch of the worldwide Anglican Communion as well as a founding member of the Porvoo Communion. ... The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup détat by Irish Catholic gentry, but rapidly degenerated into bloody inter communal violence between native Irish Catholics and English and Scottish Protestant settlers. ...

Cromwell was also opposed to the more radical religious groups on the Protestant side in the Civil Wars. Although he co-operated with Quakers and Presbyterians, he was opposed to their authoritarian imposition of their beliefs on other Protestants. He became associated with the "Independent" faction, which argued for religious freedom for all Protestants in a post-war settlement. The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, or Friends, is a religious community founded in England in the 17th century. ... Presbyterianism is part of the Reformed churches family of denominations of Christian Protestantism based on the teachings of John Calvin which traces its institutional roots to the Scottish Reformation, especially as led by John Knox. ...

Finally, Cromwell was also a firm believer in Providentialism - the belief that God was actively directing the affairs of the world through the actions of chosen people. Cromwell believed, during the Civil Wars, that he was one of these people and interpreted victories as indications of God's approval of his actions and defeats as signs that God was directing him in another direction.

The Oxford historian Christopher Hill has written a semi-popular account of his influential studies in this area in 'God's Englishman' (Penguin, 1970) John Edward Christopher Hill (February 6, 1912 _ February 23, 2003) was an English Marxist historian and the author of many history textbooks. ...

Military commander

Oliver Cromwell

Cromwell's influence as a military commander and politician during the English Civil War dramatically altered the military and the political landscape of the British Isles. From [1], in the public domain This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... From [1], in the public domain This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... The English Civil War (or Wars) refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651, specifically to the first (1642–1645) and second (1648–1649) civil wars between the supporters of King Charles I and the supporters of... British Isles is also an old name for the Great Britain, Great Britain Ireland The Isle of Man The Isle of Wight The Northern Isles, including Orkney, Shetland and Fair Isle The Hebrides, including the Inner Hebrides, Outer Hebrides and Small Isles Rockall The islands of the lower Firth of...

Having joined the Parliamentary Army with no military experience at the age of 43, he recruited a cavalry unit and gained experience and victories in a succession of battles in East Anglia. He famously recruited his officers based on merit rather than on the basis of noble birth, saying: "I would rather have a plain russet-coated captain who knows what he fights for and loves what he knows than that which you call a gentleman and is nothing else". As a result, the New Model Army under Cromwell's command became a centre for political radicals like the Levellers and a myriad of radical religious sects like the Fifth Monarchists. An army unit consisting of mounted soldiers is commonly known as cavalry. ... Norfolk and Suffolk, the core area of East Anglia. ... See Levellers (disambiguation) for alternative meanings. ... The Fifth Monarchists or Fifth Monarchy Men were active from 1649 to 1661 during the Interregnum, following the English Civil Wars of the 1600s. ...

Cromwell's troops came to respect his bravery and his concern for their well-being. Promoted to General in charge of cavalry for the New Model Army, he trained his men to rapidly regroup after an attack, tactics he first employed with great success at the Battle of Naseby and which showed a very high level of discipline and motivation on the part of his troops. With successive military victories he gained political power, until he became the leading politician of the time. By the end of the first civil war in 1646, the King was a prisoner of the Parliament. Cromwell, however, commanded the army that had won this victory and as a result was in a position to dictate the future of England. Cromwell showed in the English Civil Wars that he was a brave and daring cavalry commander. However, in the years to come he would also be recognised as an exceptional commander of whole armies. His successful conquests of Ireland and Scotland showed a great mastery of organising supplies and logistics for protracted campaigns in hostile territory. An army unit consisting of mounted soldiers is commonly known as cavalry. ... This article deals with the English Civil War army. ... The Battle of Naseby was the key battle of the first English Civil War. ... Logistics is the art and science of managing and controlling the flow of goods, energy and information. ... A military campaign is defined as: A series of related military operations aimed at accomplishing a strategic or operational objective within a given time and space. ...

Execution of the king

The Parliamentarians, including Cromwell hoped to reach a compromise settlement with Charles I. However, the King would not accept a solution at odds with his own Divine right doctrines. The so-called "second civil war", which broke out in 1648 after Charles I's escape from prison suggested to Cromwell that no compromise with the king would be possible. In 1649, after being tried for treason, Charles I was executed by the Rump Parliament at Whitehall. Cromwell came under pressure from the radicals among his own officers to execute the King, whom they termed, "Charles Stuart, that man of blood." Many hold Cromwell responsible for the execution of Charles I in January 1649, although there were 59 signatories to the death warrant. However, Cromwell does hold much of the responsibility, as his troops broke into the Parliament's chambers and only permitted the "regicides" - those in favour of Charles' execution - to vote on the matter. Cromwell did not have long to dwell on the future form of government in England however, as he immediately left the country to crush the remaining Royalist strongholds in Ireland and Scotland. Divine Right is a comic book created by Jim Lee and published by Wildstorm. ... The English Civil War (or Wars) refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651, specifically to the first (1642–1645) and second (1648–1649) civil wars between the supporters of King Charles I and the supporters of... Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ... Charles I (19 November 1600–30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625, until his death. ... The Rump Parliament was the remnant of the Long Parliament, following Prides Purge on 6 December 1648. ... The broad definition of Regicide is the deliberate killing of a king. ...

Ireland and Scotland

See also the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, and Irish Confederate Wars and Scottish Civil War. Oliver Cromwell landed in Ireland with his New Model Army on behalf of the English Parliament in 1649. ... Irish Confederate Wars began with the rebellion of the Irish of Ulster in October 1641, during which they regained their confiscated lands and murdered thousands, of Scots and English Protestant settlers. ... The Scottish Civil War The Scottish Civil War of 1644-47 was part of wider conflict known as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, which included the Bishops Wars, the English Civil War and Confederate Ireland. ...

Cromwell's actions made him very unpopular in Scotland and Ireland which, as previously independent nations, were effectively conquered by English forces during the civil wars. In particular, Cromwell's brutal suppression of the Royalists in Ireland during 1649 still has a strong resonance for many Irish people. The most enduring symbol of this alleged brutality is the siege of Drogheda in September 1649. The massacre of nearly 3,500 people in Drogheda after its capture — comprising around 2,700 Royalist soldiers and all the men in the town carrying arms, including some civilians, prisoners, and Catholic priests — is one of the historical memories that has fuelled Irish-English and Catholic-Protestant strife for over three centuries. Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba) is a country in northwest Europe, occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain. ... A nation is an imagined community of people created by a national ideology, to which certain norms and behavior are usually attributed. ... The noun or adjective, Royalist, can have several shades of meaning. ... Events January 30 - King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland is beheaded. ... Drogheda, a town in eastern Ireland, was besieged twice in the 1640s, during the Irish Confederate Wars, the Irish theatre of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. ... An atrocity (from the Latin atrox, atrocious, from Latin ater = matte black (as distinct from niger = shiny black)) is a term used to describe crimes ranging from an act committed against a single person to one committed against a population or ethnic group. ... Drogheda (Droichead Átha in Irish, meaning Fordbridge) is an industrial and port town in County Louth on the east coast of Ireland, 56 km north of Dublin. ...

Ireland

The extent of Cromwell's intentions has been strongly debated. For example, it is clear that Cromwell saw the Irish in general as enemies - he justified his sack of Drogheda as revenge for the Irish killing of English Protestants in the Irish Rebellion of 1641 calling the massacre, "The righteous judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbued their hands with so much innocent blood"- and the records of many churches such as Kilkenny Cathedral accuse Cromwell's army of having defaced and desecrated the churches and having stabled the horses in them. On the other hand, it is also clear that on entering Ireland he demanded that no supplies were to be seized from the inhabitants and that everything should be fairly purchased. His actual orders at Drogheda followed military protocol of the day where a town or garrison was first given the option to surrender and receive just treatment and the protection of the invading force. The refusal to do this even after the walls had been breached, meant that Cromwell's orders to show no mercy in the treatment of men of arms was inevitable by the standards of the day. Cromwell's men committed another infamous massacre at Wexford, when they broke into the town during surrender negotiations and killed over 2000 Irish soldiers and civilians. These two atrocities, while horrifying in their own right, were not exceptional in the war in Ireland since its start in 1641, but are well remembered, even today, because of a concerted propaganda campaign by the Royalists, which portrayed Cromwell as a monster, who indiscriminately slaughtered civilians wherever he went. The Irish Rebellion of 1641 began as an attempted coup détat by Irish Catholic gentry, but rapidly degenerated into bloody inter communal violence between native Irish Catholics and English and Scottish Protestant settlers. ... Kilkenny (Irish: Cill Chainnigh) is the county seat of County Kilkenny, Ireland, with a population (including environs) of 20,735. ... For meanings in specific fields, see protocol (computing) or protocol (cryptography). ... Wexford (Irish: Loch Garman) is the county town of County Wexford in the Republic of Ireland. ... North Korean propaganda showing a soldier destroying the United States Capitol building. ...

However, Cromwell himself never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly, but only against those "in arms". In fact, the worst atrocities committed in that country, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation for slave labour, were carried out by Cromwell's subordinates after he had left for England. In the wake of the Cormwellian conquest, all Catholic owned land was confiscated in the Act of Settlement 1652 and the practice of Roman Catholicism was banned. The Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652 was passed by the Long Parliament after the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, itself in response to the Irish Rebellion of 1641. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ...

Scotland

Cromwell also invaded Scotland in 1650-1651, after the Scots had crowned Charles I's son as Charles II and tried to re-impose the monarchy on England. Cromwell had been prepared to tolerate an independent Scotland, but had to react after the Scots invaded England. Cromwell was a lot less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians than to Irish Catholics, seeing them as, "His [God's] people, though deceived". Nevertheless, he acted with ruthlessness in Scotland. Despite being outnumbered, his veteran troops smashed Scottish armies at the battles of Dunbar and Worcester and occupied the country. Cromwell treated the thousands of prisoners of war he took in this campaign very badly, allowing thousands of them to die of disease and deporting others to penal colonies in Barbados. Cromwell's men, under George Monck viciously sacked the town of Dundee, in the manner of Drogheda. During the Commonwealth, Scotland was ruled from England and kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands from the rest of the country. Presbyterianism was allowed to be practiced as before, but its Kirk did not have the backing of the civil courts to impose its rulings, as previously. Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba) is a country in northwest Europe, occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain. ... Charles I (19 November 1600–30 January 1649) was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625, until his death. ... Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was the King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 30 January 1649 (de jure) or 29 May 1660 (de facto) until his death. ... There were two Battles of Dunbar: Battle of Dunbar (1296), in the Wars of Scottish Independence. ... The Battle of Worcester was the final battle of the Second English Civil War. ... George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle by Sir Peter Lely, painted 1665–1666. ... Location within the British Isles. ... Belligerent military occupation, occurs when one nations military garrisons occupy all or part of the territory of another nation or recognized belligerent during an invasion (during or after a war). ... Fortifications (Latin fortis, strong, and facere, to make) are military constructions designed for defensive warfare. ... The Scottish Highlands are considered to be the mountainous regions of Scotland north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault. ... Presbyterianism is part of the Reformed churches family of denominations of Christian Protestantism based on the teachings of John Calvin which traces its institutional roots to the Scottish Reformation, especially as led by John Knox. ... Kirk can mean several things: Kirk - is a common Scots word for church. ...

In both Scotland and Ireland, Cromwell is remembered as a remorseless and ruthless enemy. However, the reason for the peculiar bitterness that the Irish especially traditionally held for Cromwell's memory has as much to do with his mass confiscation of Catholic owned property as with his wartime actions.

Political rule

Statue of Oliver Cromwell outside the Palace of Westminster, London.

In the wake of the Army's 1648 recapture of the King, the monarchy was abolished, and between 1649 and 1653 the country became a republic, a rarity in Europe at that time. The republic was known as the Commonwealth of England. However, from all accounts, Cromwell actually ruled as a military dictator. Oliver Cromwell - Statue - Palace of Westminster - Westminster - London - England - 240404 Photo taken by Tagishsimon on the 24th April 2004 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Oliver Cromwell - Statue - Palace of Westminster - Westminster - London - England - 240404 Photo taken by Tagishsimon on the 24th April 2004 File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Events Peace treaty signed at Westphalia ends the Thirty Years War. ... Events January 30 - King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland is beheaded. ... Events February 2 - New Amsterdam (later renamed New York City) is incorporated. ... In a broad definition a republic is a state or country that is led by people that dont base their political power on any principle beyond the control of the people living in that state or country. ... The Commonwealth was the republican government which ruled first England and then the whole of Britain, Ireland, the colonies and other Crown possessions during the periods from 1649 (the monarch Charles I being beheaded on January 30 and An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth being passed by the... Dictator was the title of a magistrate in ancient Rome appointed by the Senate to rule the state in times of emergency. ...

Many of Cromwell's actions upon gaining power were decried by some commentators as harsh, unwise, and tyrannical. He was often ruthless in putting down the mutinies which occurred within his own army towards the end of the war (which were sometimes prompted by failure to pay the troops). He showed little sympathy for the Levellers, an egalitarian movement which had contributed greatly to Parliament's cause. (The Leveller point of view had been strongly represented in the Putney Debates held between the various factions of the Army in 1647, just prior to the King's escape. However, many historians, including those on the left, have conceded that the Leveller viewpoint, though attractive to a modern audience, was too far ahead of its time to be a stable basis for government). Cromwell was not prepared to countenance a radical democracy, but as events were to show, could not engineer a stable oligarchic Parliamentary republic either. Mutiny is the crime of conspiring to disobey orders that the mutineer is legally obliged to obey, for example by crew members of a ship. ... See Levellers (disambiguation) for alternative meanings. ... What is Egalitarianism? Egalitarianism is the moral doctrine that equality ought to prevail among some group along some dimension. ... The Putney Debates1, at the Church of St Mary the Virgin, Putney, in the county of Surrey, started on October 28, 1647 and lasted until November 11. ... Oligarchy is a form of government where most political power effectively rests with a small segment of society (typically the most powerful, whether by wealth, military strength, ruthlessness, or political influence). ...

With the king gone (and with him their common cause), Cromwell's unanimous backing dissolved, and the various factions in Parliament became engaged in infighting. In a repeat of the actions the former king had taken that had contributed to civil war, Cromwell eventually dismissed the republican Rump Parliament in 1653 and instead took personal control, effectively, as military dictator. Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army which he had built up during the civil wars. A faction is a group of people connected by a shared belief or opinion within a larger group. ... The Rump Parliament was the remnant of the Long Parliament, following Prides Purge on 6 December 1648. ... Events February 2 - New Amsterdam (later renamed New York City) is incorporated. ... Dictator was the title of a magistrate in ancient Rome appointed by the Senate to rule the state in times of emergency. ...

Cromwell's foreign policy led him into the First Anglo-Dutch War in 1652 against the Republic of the Seven United Netherlands, eventually won by Admiral Robert Blake in 1654. Foreign Policy is a bimonthly American magazine founded in 1970 by Samuel P. Huntington and Warren Demian Manshel. ... The Battle of Scheveningen, 10 August 1653 by Jan Abrahamsz Beerstraaten, painted c. ... Events April 6 - Dutch sailor Jan van Riebeeck establishes a resupply camp for the Dutch East India Company at the Cape of Good Hope, and founded Cape Town. ... This article is about the Dutch United Provinces. ... Robert Blake, General at Sea, 1599–1657 by Henry Perronet Briggs, painted 1829. ... Events April 5 - Signing of the Treaty of Westminster, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. ...

In 1657 Cromwell was offered the crown by a reconstituted parliament, presenting him with a dilemma since he had been instrumental in abolishing the monarchy. After six weeks of deliberation, he rejected the offer, largely because the senior officers in his army threatened to resign if he accepted, but also because it could have placed existing constitutional constraints on his rule. Instead, he was ceremonially installed as Lord Protector at Westminster Abbey, sitting on the former king's throne. The event was practically a coronation and made him king in all but name. The written constitution even gave him the right to issue noble titles, a device which he soon put to use in much the same fashion as former kings. (A history of the titles is given in Restoration). Events January 8 - Miles Sindercombe, would-be-assassin of Oliver Cromwell, and his group are captured in London February - Admiral Robert Blake defeats the Spanish West Indian Fleet in a battle over the seizure of Jamaica. ... The Lord Protector was the head of state during the brief period of the republic or Commonwealth in Great Britain and Ireland. ... The Abbey at night, from Deans Yard. ... The coronation of Empress Farah, of Iran, 1968. ... Traditional ranks among European royalty, peers, and nobility are rooted in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. ... The English Restoration or simply Restoration was an episode in the history of Great Britain beginning in 1660 when the monarchy was restored under King Charles II after the English Civil War. ...

Death and posthumous execution

Within two years of Cromwell's death from malaria on September 3, 1658 parliament restored Charles II as king, as Cromwell's son Richard Cromwell had proved an unworthy successor. Red blood cell infected with Malaria (Italian: bad air; formerly called ague or marsh fever in English) is an infectious disease which in humans causes about 500 million infections and 2 million deaths annually, mainly in the tropics and sub-Saharan Africa. ... September 3 is the 246th day of the year (247th in leap years). ... Events January 13 - Edward Sexby, who has plotted against Oliver Cromwell, dies in Tower of London February 6 - Swedish troops of Charles X Gustav of Sweden cross from Sweden to Denmark over frozen sea May 1 - Publication of Hydriotaphia, Urn Burial and The Garden of Cyrus by Thomas Browne September... Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was the King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 30 January 1649 (de jure) or 29 May 1660 (de facto) until his death. ... For the American actor of the 1930s and 1940s, please see Richard Cromwell (actor) Richard Cromwell (October 4, 1626- July 12, 1712) was the third son of Oliver Cromwell, and was Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland, for little over eight months, from September 3, 1658 until May 25...

This should have been the end of the story but in 1661 Oliver Cromwell's body was exhumed from Westminster Abbey and was subjected to the ritual of a posthumous execution – on January 30, the same date that Charles I had been executed. He was in fact hanged, drawn and quartered. At the end his body was thrown into a pit. His severed head was displayed on a pole outside Westminster Abbey until 1685. Since then it changed hands several times before eventually being buried in the grounds of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1960. Events January 6 - The fifth monarchy men unsuccessfully attempt to seize control of London. ... The Abbey at night, from Deans Yard. ... Posthumous execution is the ritual execution of an already dead body. ... Drawing and quartering was part of the penalty anciently ordained in England for treason. ... Events February 6 - James Stuart, Duke of York becomes King James II of England and Ireland and King James VII of Scotland. ... Full name Sidney Sussex College Motto Dieu me garde de calomnie God preserve me from calumny Named after Lady Frances Sidney, Countess of Sussex Previous names - Established 1596 Sister College St Johns College Master Prof. ... 1960 was a leap year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar). ...

Quotes

Wikiquote quotations related to:

Oliver Cromwell

• "Let us restore the king to his throne, and let the king in future agree to govern with the consent of Parliament. Let us restore the old church, with its bishops, since that is what most of the people want; but since the Puritans and Separatists and Baptists have served us well in the war, let us not persecute them anymore but let them worship as they like, outside of the established church. And so let us have peace and liberty."

File links The following pages link to this file: Charles Farrar Browne Definitions of music Edmund Spenser Floccinaucinihilipilification Main Page James Cagney Plautus Rosencrantz & Guildenstern are Dead Thomas J. Watson William Penn Pericles Hyman G. Rickover Julian of Norwich Wikipedia:About Eric Gill Main Page/Temp Virginia Satir Raymond Williams... Wikiquote is a sister project of Wikipedia, using the same MediaWiki software. ... The Puritans were members of a group of radical Protestants which developed in England after the Reformation. ... Political separatism is a movement to obtain sovereignty and split a territory or group of people (usually a people with a distinctive national consciousness) from one another (or one nation from another; a colony from the metropolis). ... Baptist churches are part of a Christian movement often regarded as an Evangelical, Protestant denomination. ...

Miscellaneous

In 1989, Monty Python wrote a song called "Oliver Cromwell," which told the entire career of Cromwell to the tune of Frederic Chopin's Polonaise Op.53 in A flat major. It is available on their compilation album Monty Python Sings. The Monty Python troupe in 1970. ... This article is about Frédéric Chopin, the composer. ... Monty Python Sings was a comedy album of songs written by the Monty Python team. ...

See also

• Admiral Robert Blake for the role played by sea power during this period.

Robert Blake, General at Sea, 1599–1657 by Henry Perronet Briggs, painted 1829. ...

External links

• Cromwell Association (http://www.olivercromwell.org/The)
• Cromwell Biography (http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/state/monarchs_leaders/cromwell_01.shtml) at the BBC
• Cromwell biography (http://www.britannia.com/history/monarchs/mon48.html) at Britannia.com
• Cromwell biography (http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/macauley-cromwell.html) at Internet Modern History Source Book
• Cromwell biography (http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/biog/oliver-cromwell.htm) at British Civil Wars
• The Cromwell family (http://www.tudorplace.com.ar/CROMWELL.htm)
• Page demonstrating his descent from Henry I of England (http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~pmcbride/rfc/lodh1rc.htm)
• Brief biography (http://www.victorianweb.org/history/Cromwell.html) at the Victoria Web

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) was formed in 1927 by means of a royal charter from the Crown. ...

James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde (October 19, 1610 - 1688) was an Anglo-Irish statesman and soldier. ... The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (also known as the Viceroy or in the Middle Ages as the Lord Deputy) was the head of Englands (pre-1707) or Britains (post 1707) administration in Ireland. ... Henry Ireton Henry Ireton (1611 - November 26, 1651), English was a general in the army of Parliament during the English Civil War. ... The Lord Protector was the head of state during the brief period of the republic or Commonwealth in Great Britain and Ireland. ... For the American actor of the 1930s and 1940s, please see Richard Cromwell (actor) Richard Cromwell (October 4, 1626- July 12, 1712) was the third son of Oliver Cromwell, and was Lord Protector of England, Scotland and Ireland, for little over eight months, from September 3, 1658 until May 25...