"Crucifixion of St. Peter" by Caravaggio

Crucifixion is an ancient method of execution, where the victim was tied or nailed to a large wooden cross (possible as a variation a pole or beam) and left to hang there until dead. It was widely considered a not uncommon but extremely dishonorable and painful form of judicial execution in the Roman Empire, though similar methods were employed in other ancient cultures such as Persia.^[1] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (618x800, 120 KB) Summary Michelangelo Merisi, aka Caravaggio: , Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (618x800, 120 KB) Summary Michelangelo Merisi, aka Caravaggio: , Santa Maria del Popolo, Rome. ... A Greek cross (all arms of equal length) above a saltire, a cross rotated by 45 degrees For other uses, see Cross (disambiguation). ... Beam may refer to: Look up beam in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Roman Empire is the name given to both the imperial domain developed by the city-state of Rome and also the corresponding phase of that civilization, characterized by an autocratic form of government. ... For other uses of this term see: Persia (disambiguation) The Persian Empire is the name used to refer to a number of historic dynasties that have ruled the country of Persia (Iran). ...

Crucifixion was used by the Romans until about AD 313, when Christianity was legalized in the Roman Empire and soon became the official state religion. However, it has been used in various places in modern times. February - Wtf is up mah cracka??. Constantine issues the Edict of Milan, ending all persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. ...

Since Jesus Christ was crucified, a crucifix, often bearing an icon of Christ, became the main symbol of most Christians, while some religious groups, such as Protestants, prefer to use only a cross without crucified body to emphasize their belief that Christ continues to live; an alternative, sometimes clandestine symbol since Roman persecution, was the Ichthys. Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... A crucifix amidst the cornfields near Mureck in rural Styria, Austria A handheld crucifix A crucifix in front of the Holy Spirit Church in Košice, Slovakia A crucifix is a cross with a representation of Jesuss body, or corpus. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on Jesus of Nazareth, and on his life and teachings as presented in the New Testament. ... This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ...

Details of crucifixion

The Yellow Christ (Le Christ jaune)
1889, oil on canvas. By Paul Gaugin. Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, NY, USA

Crucifixion was rarely performed for ritual or symbolic reasons, but usually to provide a particularly painful (hence the term excruciating, literally "out of crucifying"), gruesome (hence dissuading against the crimes punishable by it) and public (hence the metonymic expression 'to nail to the cross') death, using whatever means were most expedient for that goal. Crucifixion methods varied considerably with location and time period. Download high resolution version (762x978, 457 KB)Le Christ jaune (The Yellow Christ) (1889), by Paul Gauguin This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (762x978, 457 KB)Le Christ jaune (The Yellow Christ) (1889), by Paul Gauguin This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... The Yellow Christ (Le Christ jaune) 1889, oil on canvas Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York Cloisonnism is a style of post-Impressionist painting with bold forms separated by dark contours. ... Eugène Henri Paul Gauguin (June 8, 1848 – May 9, 1903) was a leading Post-Impressionist painter. ... The Albright-Knox Art Gallery is a major showplace for modern art and contemporary art in the western New York Region. ... In rhetoric, metonymy (from Greek beyond/changed and , a suffix used to name figures of speech from name (OED)) (IPA: ) is the substitution of one word for another with which it is associated. ...

Two methods were followed in the infliction of the punishment of crucifixion. In both of these the criminal was first stripped naked, and bound to an upright stake, where he was scourged. After this, the victim was dressed again, and, if able, was made to drag the cross or a part of it (usually weighing 150 lb or more) to the place of execution. At this point he was again stripped naked, and was either fastened to it or impaled upon it, and left to die. In this method, the crux simplex of Justus Lipsius, a single stake was used. Nudity is a common subject both in fine arts and popular culture. ... Whipping on a post Flagellation is the act of whipping (Latin flagellum, whip) the human body. ... Justus Lipsius, Joost Lips or Josse Lips (October 18, 1547 — March 23, 1606), was a Flemish philologian and humanist. ...

The other method is described in the New Testament account of the crucifixion of Jesus. In such a case, after the scourging at the stake, the criminal was made to carry a gibbet, formed of two transverse bars of wood, to the place of execution, and he was then fastened to it either by rope or by large iron nails driven through the heels of the hands or through the wrists and through the ankles. Sometimes this was done as the cross lay on the ground, and it was then lifted into position. In other cases the criminal was made to ascend by a ladder, and was then fastened to the cross. Probably the feebleness, or state of collapse, from which the criminal must often have suffered, had much to do in deciding this. John 21:1 Jesus Appears to His Disciples--Alessandro Mantovani: the Vatican, Rome. ... Gibbet is a term applied to several different devices used in the capital punishment of criminals and/or the deterrence of potential criminals. ...

It is not quite clear which of these two plans was followed in the case of the crucifixion of Christ, but the more general opinion has been that he was nailed to the cross on the ground, and that it was then lifted into position. The contrary opinion, has, however, prevailed to some extent, and there are representations of the crucifixion which depict him as mounting a ladder placed against the cross. Such representations may, however, have been due to a pious desire of their authors to emphasize the voluntary offering of himself as the Saviour of the World, rather than as being intended for actual pictures of the scene itself. It may be noted, however, that among the Emblems of the Passion, as they are called, and which were very favorite devices in the middle ages, the ladder is not infrequently found in conjunction with the crown of thorns, nails, spear and other related items. The Passion is the theological term used for the suffering, both physical and mental, of Jesus in the hours prior to and including his trial and execution by crucifixion. ...

Cross shape

The horizontal beam of the cross, or transom, could be fixed at the very top of the vertical piece, the upright, to form a capital T called a tau cross or Saint Anthony's cross. According to some unlikely theories, this shape had its origin in ancient Babylonia as the symbol of the god Tammuz, being in the shape of the mystic Tau, the Greek initial of his name. The horizontal beam could also be affixed at some distance below the top, often in a mortise, to form a lowercase t-shape called a Latin cross, and a sign was fastened to the top with the name of the victim, used for executing kings. To mock Christ as "King of the Jews," Christ was crucified on such a cross, and the standard Latin Cross was used. Alternatively, the other crosses could consist of two diagonal beams to form an X, alternatively known as the decussate cross (after decem, Latin for 'ten', 'X' being the Roman numeral for ten) or as Saint Andrew's cross. Tau (upper case Τ, lower case τ) is the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet. ... Saint Anthony the Great (251 - 356), also known as Saint Anthony of Egypt, Saint Anthony of the Desert, Saint Anthony the Anchorite, and The Father of All Monks, was an Egyptian Christian saint and the outstanding leader among the Desert Fathers, who were Christian monks in the Egyptian desert in... Tammuz or Tamuz Arabic تمّوز Tammūz; Hebrew תַּמּוּז, Standard Hebrew Tammuz, Tiberian Hebrew Tammûz; Akkadian Duʾzu, Dūzu; Sumerian Dumuzi was the name of a Babylonian deity. ... Tau (upper case Τ, lower case τ) is the 19th letter of the Greek alphabet. ... The traditional form of the Christian cross, known as the Latin cross The Christian cross is a familiar religious symbol of most Christianity. ... Saint Andrew (Greek: Ανδρέας Andreas, manly), called in the Orthodox tradition Protocletos, or the First-called, is a Christian Apostle, brother of Saint Peter. ...

Additionally, evidence supports the theory that malefactors were sometimes nailed to a 'crux simplex', a single, upright wooden stake, with no transom at all, which was often used for ancient ordeals similar to crucifixion. The original Greek word 'stauros', indicates cross, while the word 'xylon' indicates a stake or tree. Archaeological and literary evidence discussed elsewhere in this article supports the belief that actual Latin crosses were used as a means of execution, but a few saints' hagiographies concur with occasional variations in shape, e.g. upside down or X-shaped (saltire). Also, prior to Jesus' crucifixion, in the Roman territory of Judea, criminals and rebels were put to death by crucifixion, and documents suggest that the cross used was a + shape. The traditional form of the Christian cross, known as the Latin cross The Christian cross is a familiar religious symbol of most Christianity. ... The arms of St Albans: a gold saltire on a blue field A saltire is an X-shaped figure in heraldry. ... Judea or Judaea (יהודה Praise, Standard Hebrew , Tiberian Hebrew ) (Greek: Ιουδαία) is a term used for the mountainous southern part of the historic Land of Israel (Hebrew: ארץ ישראל Eretz Yisrael), an area now divided between Israel and the West Bank, and, in a few geographical definitions of Judea, Jordan. ...

Location of the nails

Religious depictions of the crucifixion of Jesus typically show him supported by nails through the palms.

For the sake of expediency, the victim was likely affixed to the cross by ropes, nails, or some combination of the two. In popular depictions of crucifixion (possibly derived from a literal reading of the translated description in the Gospel of John, of Jesus' wounds being 'in the hands'), the victim is shown supported only by nails driven straight through the feet and the palms of the hands, which is possible, if there was a foot-rest to relieve the weight; on their own, the hands could not support the full body weight[1]. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3176x2820, 870 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Crucifixion Matthias Grünewald History of the Roman Catholic Church ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (3176x2820, 870 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Crucifixion Matthias Grünewald History of the Roman Catholic Church ... Jesus (8–2 BC/BCE to 29–36 AD/CE),[1] also known as Jesus of Nazareth, is the central figure of Christianity. ... The Gospel of John is the fourth gospel in the canon of the New Testament, traditionally ascribed to John the Evangelist. ...

Another possibility, that does not require tying, is that the nails were inserted just above the wrist, between the two bones of the forearm (the radius and the ulna). The nails could also be driven through the wrist, in a space between four carpal bones (which is the location shown in the Shroud of Turin). As some historians have suggested, the Gospel word χειρ (cheir) that is translated as 'hand' may have in fact included everything below the mid-forearm. Indeed, Acts 12:7 uses this word to report chains falling off from Peter's 'hands', although the chains would be around what we would call 'wrists'. This shows that the semantic range of χειρ is wider than the English 'hand', and can incorporate nails through the wrist. The radius and ulna of the left forearm, posterior surface. ... The ulna (Elbow Bone) [Figs. ... In human anatomy, the carpal bones are the bones of the human wrist. ... The first photo of the Shroud of Turin, taken in 1898, had the surprising feature that the image on the negative was clearer than the positive image. ...

Another possibility, suggested by Frederick Zugibe, is that the nails may have been driven in on an angle, entering in the palm in the crease that delineates the bulky region at the base of the thumb, and exiting in the wrist, passing through the carpal tunnel. Dr. Frederick Zugibe, is the former chief medical examiner of Rockland County New York. ... In the human wrist there is a sheath of tough connective tissue which envelopes and protects one nerve (median nerve) and tendons, which attach muscles to the wrist and hand bones. ...

A sedile, or a foot-rest, was often attached to the cross, for the purpose of taking the man's weight off the wrists. This was most likely a simple peg or slab of wood, upon which the victim would rest the feet.

A new study and a documentary on the National Geographic Channel's Quest For Truth: The Crucifixion, as well as brief news article on the experiment and the documentary, have shown that a person can be suspended by the wrists. Nailing the feet to the side of the cross relieves strain on the wrists by placing most of the weight on the lower body. The palms were probably not the location for the nails, because there are no structures in the hands to prevent the nails from ripping through the flesh due to the weight of the body. The National Geographic Channel is a subscription television network that features documentaries produced by the National Geographic Society. ...

Cause of death

Death could come in hours or even days, depending on exact methods, the health of those crucified, and environmental circumstances.

A theory attributed to Pierre Barbet holds that the typical cause of death was asphyxiation. He conjectured that when the whole body weight was supported by the stretched arms, the victim would have severe difficulty exhaling, due to hyper-expansion of the lungs. The victim would therefore have to draw himself up by his arms, or have his feet supported by tying or by a wood block. Indeed, Roman executioners were said to break the victim's legs, after he had hung for some time, in order to hasten his death. Once deprived of support and unable to lift himself, the victim would die within a few minutes. If death did not come from asphyxiation, it could result from a number of other causes, including physical shock caused by the scourging that preceded the crucifixion, and the nailing itself, dehydration and exhaustion. Pierre Barbet (May 16, 1925 - July 20, 1995) was the main pseudonym used by French science fiction writer Claude Avice. ... Asphyxia is a condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body. ... Shock is a serious medical condition where the tissue perfusion is insufficient to meet the required supply of oxygen and nutrients. ... Whipping on a post Flagellation is the act of whipping (Latin flagellum, whip) the human body. ... Dehydration (hypohydration) is the removal of water (hydor in ancient Greek) from an object. ...

Experiments by Frederick Zugibe have revealed that, when suspended with arms at 60° to 70° from the vertical, test subjects had no difficulty breathing, only rapidly-increasing discomfort and pain. This would correspond to the Roman use of crucifixion as a prolonged, agonizing, humiliating death. Zugibe claims that the breaking of the crucified victim's legs to hasten death, mentioned in the Gospel accounts, was done in order to cause severe traumatic shock or death by fat embolism, and only as a coup de grace. Crucifixion on a single pole with no transom, with hands affixed over one's head, would precipitate rapid asphyxiation if no block was provided to stand on, or once the legs were broken. Dr. Frederick Zugibe, is the former chief medical examiner of Rockland County New York. ... In medicine, an embolism occurs when an object (the embolus, plural emboli) migrates from one part of the body (through circulation) and cause(s) a blockage (occlusion) of a blood vessel in another part of the body. ... Coup de Grace was a a multimedia project under which Michael Moynihan released recordings and print. ...

It was, however, possible to survive crucifixion, and there are records of people who did (as with hanging in the West). The historian Josephus, a Judaean who defected to the Roman side during the Jewish uprising of AD66 - 72, describes finding two of his friends crucified. He begged for and was granted their reprieve; one died, the other recovered. Josephus gives no details of the method or duration of crucifixion before their reprieve. Suicide by hanging. ...

Archeological evidence for ancient crucifixion

Despite the fact that the ancient Jewish historian Josephus, as well as other sources, refer to the crucifixion of thousands of people by the Romans, there is only a single archeological discovery of a crucified body dating back to the Roman Empire around the time of Jesus which was discovered in Jerusalem. It is not surprising that there is only one such discovery, because a crucified body was usually left to decay on the cross and therefore would not be preserved. The only reason these archeological remains were preserved was because family members gave this particular individual a customary burial. A representation of Flavius Josephus, a woodcutting in John C. Winstons translation of his works Josephus ( 37 – 100 AD/CE), who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Flavius Josephus[1], was a 1st century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived...

The remains were found accidentally in an ossuary with the crucified man’s name on it, 'Yehohanan, the son of Hagakol'. The ossuary contained a heel with a nail driven through its side, indicating that the heels may have been driven through the sides of the tree (one on the left side, one on the right side, and not with both feet together in front). The nail had olive wood on it indicating that he was crucified on a cross made of olivewood or on an olive tree. Since olive trees are not very tall, this would suggest that victims were crucified at eye level. Additionally, the piece of olive wood was located between the heel and the head of the nail, presumably to keep the victim from freeing his foot by sliding it over the nail. His legs were found broken. It is thought that since in Roman times iron was expensive, the nails were removed from the dead body to cut the costs, which would help to explain why only one has been found, as the back of the nail was bent in such a way that it couldn't be removed. An ossuary is a chest, building, well or site made to serve as the final resting place of human skeletal remains. ...

Important references for the ancient practice of crucifixion and an examination of archeological evidence:

• Tzaferis, Vassilios. “Crucifixion -- The Archaeological Evidence”, Biblical Archaeology Review 11, February, 1985: 44–53.
• Zias, Joseph. “The Crucified Man from Giv’at Ha-Mivtar: A Reappraisal”, Israel Exploration Journal 35 (1), 1985: 22–27.
• Hengel, Martin. Crucifixion (Augsburg Fortress, 1977). ISBN 0-8006-1268-X.

History of crucifixion

Persia, Alexander and other pre-Roman states

Punishment by crucifixion was widely employed in ancient times. It was used by Assyria, Achaemenid Persia, the Greeks, Carthaginians, Macedonians and from very early times Rome. There is evidence that captured pirates were crucified in the port of Athens around the 7th century BC. Relief from Assyrian capital of Dur Sharrukin, showing transport of Lebanese cedar (8th c. ... The Persian Empire was a series of historical empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau. ...

Crucifixion was common method of punishment in Egypt however unlike other areas it was done by cutting the opposite limbs of a person and using the palm tree as a stake according to "Die Sprache Der Pharaonen Großes Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch, a concise Egyptian-German dictionary" [2].

It has also been thought that crucifixion was used as a form of punishment within Jewish penal law (as stoning certainly was), and that there is an allusion to it in Deuteronomy 21:22-23, though this reference to being hanged from a tree may be associated with lynching. Stoning or lapidation is a form of capital punishment in which the criminal is put to death by having stones thrown at him or her. ... Deuteronomy is the fifth book of the Hebrew Bible. ... Lynch mob redirects here. ...

With strong connotations of crucifixion, St. Paul says in [Galatians 3:13] that Jesus redeemed people from curse of the law by becoming a curse for them. Christ redeemed us from the curse of the law by becoming a curse for us, for it is written: "Cursed is everyone who is hung on a tree."

The earliest historical record of crucifixion was made in 519 BC when Darius I, the Persian King of Kings, crucified 3000 political opponents in Babylon. Seal of Darius I, showing the king hunting on his chariot, and the symbol of Ahuramazda Darius the Great (Pers. ... King of Kings (or some literal parallel in various languages) is a lofty title that has been used by several monarchies (usually empires in the informal sense of great powers) throughout history, and in many cases the literal title meaning King of Kings, i. ... Babylon was a city in Mesopotamia, the ruins of which can be found in present-day Babil Province, Iraq, about 50 miles south of Baghdad. ...

Alexander the Great is reputed to have executed 2000 survivors from his siege of the Phoenician city of Tyre, as well as the doctor who unsuccessfully treated Alexander's friend Hephaestion. Some historians have also conjectured that Alexander crucified Callisthenes, his official historian and biographer, for objecting to Alexander's adoption of the Persian ceremony of royal adoration. Alexander the Great (Greek: ,[1] Megas Alexandros; July 356 BC–June 11, 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), was one of, if not the most successful military commanders in history. ... The Triumphal Arch Tyre (Arabic , Phoenician , Hebrew Tzor, Tiberian Hebrew , Akkadian , Greek Týros) is a city in the South Governorate of Lebanon. ... The Stone Lion of Hamedan is said to have been erected by Alexander The Great, upon the death of Hephaestion. ... Callisthenes, or Kallisthenes, ( in Greek) of Olynthus (c. ...

In Carthage, crucifixion was an established mode of execution, which could even be imposed on a general for suffering a major defeat.

Roman Empire

In Ancient Rome, the custom of crucifixion may have developed out of the primitive custom of arbori suspendere, hanging - nailed or bound - on the arbor infelix, 'unfortunate tree' which was dedicated to the gods of the nether world (Seneca ("Epistola", 101) still calls the cross infelix lignum, 'unfortunate wood'; trees were often used for crucifying convicts, e.g. Tertullian, "Apologia", viii. 16), and/or be adopted from Carthage, and was used for slaves, rebels, pirates and especially-despised enemies and criminals. Therefore crucifixion was considered a most shameful and disgraceful way to die. Condemned Roman citizens were usually exempt from crucifixion (like feudal nobles from hanging, dying more honorably by decapitation) except for major crimes against the state, such as high treason. This article or section may contain original research or unverified claims. ... Bold text Carthage Ruins of Roman-era Carthage For other uses, see Carthage (disambiguation). ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... This article is about sea pirates. ... Criminal redirects here for other uses of crime and criminal, see crime (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Treason (disambiguation). ...

The Romans used it for the crimes of piracy, highway robbery, assassination, forgery, false testimony, mutiny, high treason and rebellion. Notorious mass crucifixions followed the Third Servile War (the slave rebellion under Spartacus), the Roman Civil War, and the destruction of Jerusalem. Combatants Army of escaped slaves Roman Republic Commanders Crixus†, Oenomaus, Spartacus† (presumed dead, body never found) Caius Glaber, Publius Valerius, Gnaeus Clodianus, Lucius Publicola, Cassius, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Pompey Magnus, Lucullus. ... Spartacus by Denis Foyatier, 1830 Spartacus (ca. ... There were several Roman civil wars, especially during the time of the late Republic. ... Jerusalem (Hebrew:  , Yerushaláyim or Yerushalaim; Arabic:  , al-Quds (the Holy); official Arabic in Israel: أورشليم القدس, Urshalim-al-Quds (combining the Biblical and common usage Arabic names) is the capital and largest city[1] of the State of Israel with a population of 724,000 (as of May 24, 2006[2...

Josephus tells a story of the Romans crucifying people along the walls of Jerusalem. He also says that the Roman soldiers would amuse themselves by crucifying criminals in different positions. In Roman-style crucifixion, the victim took days to die slowly from suffocation — caused by the victim's blood-supply slowly draining away to a quantity insufficient to supply the required oxygen to vital organs. The dead body was left up for vultures and other birds to consume. A representation of Flavius Josephus, a woodcutting in John C. Winstons translation of his works Josephus ( 37 – 100 AD/CE), who became known, in his capacity as a Roman citizen, as Flavius Josephus[1], was a 1st century Jewish historian and apologist of priestly and royal ancestry who survived... Orders Falconiformes (Fam. ...

The goal of Roman crucifixion was not just to kill the criminal, but also to mutilate and dishonour the body of the condemned. In ancient tradition, an honourable death required burial; leaving a body on the cross, so as to mutilate it and prevent its burial, was a grave dishonour for the victim.

Under ancient Roman penal practice, crucifixion was not only a means of execution, but also a means of exhibiting the criminal’s low social status. It was the most dishonourable death imaginable, originally reserved for slaves, hence still called "supplicium servile" by Seneca, later extended to provincial freedmen of obscure station ('humiles'). The elite of Roman society (only about 10% of the population) were almost never subject to corporal punishments; instead, they were fined or exiled. Josephus mentions Jews of high rank who were crucified, but this was to point out that their status had been taken away from them. Control of one’s own body was vital in the ancient world. Capital punishment took away control over one’s own body, thereby implying a loss of status and honour. The Romans often broke the prisoner's legs to hasten death and usually forbade burial. Seneca may refer to: Roman figures (any links to Seneca in Roman pages should be relinked to one of these two) Marcus (or Lucius) Annaeus Seneca also called rhetor, Roman orator and father of Seneca the philosopher and dramatist. ... Capital punishment, or the death penalty, is the execution of a convicted criminal by the state as punishment for crimes known as capital crimes or capital offences. ...

A cruel prelude was scourging, which would cause the victim to lose a large amount of blood, and approach a state of shock. The convict then usually had to carry the horizontal beam (patibulum in Latin) to the place of execution, but not necessarily the whole cross. Crucifixion was typically carried out by specialized teams, consisting of a commanding centurion and four soldiers. When it was done in an established place of execution, the vertical beam (stipes) could even be permanently embedded in the ground. The victim was usually stripped naked - the New Testament gospels, dated to around the same time as Josephus, describe soldiers gambling for the robes of Jesus. Whipping on a post Flagellation is the act of whipping (Latin flagellum, whip) the human body. ... Shock is a serious medical condition where the tissue perfusion is insufficient to meet the required supply of oxygen and nutrients. ... The patibulum is the cross-bar of a crucifix, the portion that the wrists are nailed or more commonly tied to as a means of suspending the criminal. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... Centurion can mean: In the military: Centurion (Roman army), a professional officer of the Roman army who commanded a large amount of men. ... John 21:1 Jesus Appears to His Disciples--Alessandro Mantovani: the Vatican, Rome. ... For other uses, see Gospel (disambiguation). ...

The 'nails' were tapered iron spikes approximately 5 to 7 inch (13 to 18 cm) long, with a square shaft 3/8 inch (1 cm) across. In some cases, the nails were gathered afterwards and used as healing amulets.

Emperor Constantine, the first Emperor known to receive a Christian baptism, abolished crucifixion in the Roman Empire at the end of his reign. Constantine. ... Baptism in early Christian art. ...

Crucifixion in the Qur'an

The Muslim Qur'an mentions crucifixion several times. In Surah 7:124, Pharaoh, around 1500-1200 BC, says that he will crucify his chief wizards. Also, Surah 12:41 mentions Joseph saying that the Pharaoh of the time (about 800-1100 BC) would crucify one of his prisoners. Islam (Arabic:  ) is a monotheistic religion based upon the Quran, its principal scripture, whose followers, known as Muslims (مسلم), believe God (Arabic: الله ) sent through revelations to Muhammad. ... The Qurān [1] (Arabic: , literally the recitation; also called The Noble Quran; also transliterated as Quran, Koran (the traditional term in English), and Al-Quran), is the central religious text of Islam. ... See also: Sura (disambiguation). ... Pharaoh is a title used to refer to any ruler, usually male, of the Egyptian kingdom in the pre-Christian, pre-Islamic period. ... BC may stand for: Before Christ (see Anno Domini) : an abbreviation used to refer to a year before the beginning of the year count that starts with the supposed year of the birth of Jesus. ... Pharaoh is a title used to refer to any ruler, usually male, of the Egyptian kingdom in the pre-Christian, pre-Islamic period. ... BC may stand for: Before Christ (see Anno Domini) : an abbreviation used to refer to a year before the beginning of the year count that starts with the supposed year of the birth of Jesus. ...

'And the wizards fell down prostrate, crying: "We believe in the Lord of the Worlds, The Lord of Moses and Aaron". Pharaoh said: "Ye believe in Him before I give you leave! Lo! this is the plot that ye have plotted in the city that ye may drive its people hence. But ye shall come to know! Surely I shall have your hands and feet cut off upon alternate sides. Then I shall crucify you every one."' Surah 7:120-124

'O my two fellow-prisoners! As for one of you, he will pour out wine for his lord to drink; and as for the other, he will be crucified so that the birds will eat from his head. Thus is the case judged concerning which ye did inquire.' Surah 12:41

Japan

Crucifixion was used in Japan before and during the Tokugawa Shogunate. It was called Haritsuke in Japanese. The victim—usually a sentenced criminal—was hoisted upon a T-shaped cross. Then, executioners killed him with spears. The body was left to hang for a time before burial. The Tokugawa shogunate or Tokugawa bakufu (徳川幕府) (also known as the Edo bakufu) was a feudal military dictatorship of Japan established in 1603 by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the shoguns of the Tokugawa family until 1868. ... A judicial executioner is a person who carries out a death sentence ordered by the state or other legal authority, which was known in feudal terminology as high justice. ...

In 1597, twenty-six Christians were nailed to crosses at Nagasaki, Japan. Among those executed were Paul Miki and Pedro Bautista, a Spanish Franciscan who had worked about ten years in the Philippines. Events 17 January - A court case in Guildford recorded evidence that a certain plot of land was used for playing “kreckett” (i. ... A Christian is a follower of Jesus of Nazareth, referred to as Christ. ... Nagasaki (Japanese: 長崎市, Nagasaki-shi  , long peninsula) is the capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture in Japan. ... Paul Miki is a saint of the Roman Catholic Church. ... Pedro Bautista was a Roman Catholic saint and martyr who died in Japan. ... The Order of Friars Minor and other Franciscan movements are disciples of Saint Francis of Assisi. ...

Modern death on the cross

• Execution by crucifixion, while rare in recent times, was used at Dachau during the Holocaust and in a number of wars, such as in Cambodia under the Khmer Rouge and during the Sino-Japanese war, where it was among the many methods of torture and execution used by Japanese soldiers against Asian civilians - largely in emulation of medieval Japanese military practices.

• During World War I, there were persistent rumors that German soldiers had crucified a Canadian soldier on a tree or barn door with bayonets or combat knives. The event was initially reported in 1915 by Private George Barrie of the 1st Canadian Division. However, it is generally believed to be an allied propaganda invention (see for example [3]).

• Photographic evidence exists positing that some victims of the Armenian Genocide were crucified by Ottoman soldiers.

• There are persistent stories that crucifixions continue to occur in certain parts of Africa, particularly in Sudan. According to reports, many Sudanese -like animists, Christians are 'naturally' suspect of separatism against the predominantly Islamic republic- have been nailed to crude crosses in remote areas on the plains, where access by reporters and Western witnesses is limited. Al Jazeera reported in 2002 the crucifixion of 32 Christian priests and other males, some still in their early teens. They were allegedly whipped severely and affixed to crosses with six-inch nails through their hands, ankles and genitals.

Memorial at the camp, 1997. ... Selection procedure of Hungarian Jews at the Auschwitz camp on 26 May 1944, where the Nazis chose whom to kill immediately and whom to use as slave labor or for medical experimentation. ... For other uses of War, see War (disambiguation). ... Flag of the Khmer Rouge The Khmer Rouge (Khmer: ) was the extremist-Maoist organization that ruled Cambodia from 1975 to 1979. ... Combatants Qing Empire (China) Empire of Japan Commanders Li Hongzhang Yamagata Aritomo Strength 630,000 men Beiyang Army, Beiyang Fleet 240,000 men Imperial Japanese Army, Imperial Japanese Navy Casualties 35,000 dead or wounded 13,823 dead, 3,973 wounded The First Sino–Japanese War (Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: Zh... For other uses, see Torture (disambiguation). ... Combatants Allied Powers: France Italy Russia Serbia United Kingdom United States Central Powers: Austria-Hungary Bulgaria Germany Ottoman Empire Commanders Ferdinand Foch Georges Clemenceau Victor Emmanuel III Luigi Cadorna Nicholas II Aleksei Brusilov Herbert Henry Asquith Douglas Haig John Jellicoe Woodrow Wilson John Pershing Wilhelm II Paul von Hindenburg Reinhard... Modern soldiers. ... The US Marine Corps OKC-3S Bayonet A bayonet (from French baïonnette) is a knife- or dagger-shaped weapon designed to fit on or over the muzzle of a rifle barrel or similar weapon. ... The Canadian Corps - 1st Canadian Division – World War I Formed in August of 1914, the 1st Canadian Division was initially made up from Provisional Battalions that were named after their Province of origin but these Provisional titles were dropped before the Division arrived in Britain on October 14, 1914. ... Armenian Genocide photo. ... Motto: دولت ابد مدت Devlet-i Ebed-müddet (The Eternal State) Anthem: Ottoman imperial anthem At the height of its power (1683) Capital Söğüt (1299-), Bursa (1326-), Edirne (1365-), Constantinople (Istanbul) (1453-1922) Language(s) Ottoman Turkish Government Monarchy Sultans  - 1281–1326 Osman I  - 1918–1922 Mehmed VI Grand Viziers  - 1320... For other uses, see Africa (disambiguation). ... Al Jazeera logo Al Jazeera (الجزيرة), meaning The Island or The (Arabian) Peninsula (whence also Algiers) is an Arabic television channel based in Qatar. ...

Modern crucifixions without death

In North Korean POW camps

In MGM's 1954 movie, Prisoner of War, Steve Forrest, Robert Horton, and several other actors are shown stripped to their undershorts and tied, crucifixion style, to wooden frameworks inside a North Korean POW camp. Their feet barely touch the ground and they are said to be left in this torturous position for hours, perhaps even days at a time. Allen Rivkin wrote the movie's screenplay and according to the MGM pressbook, he researched the subject by interviewing 60 recently repatriated American soldiers who'd spent as much as 33 months as prisoners of the North Koreans. According to Rivkin, all the tortures shown in the movie were based on testimony given him in these interviews. Geneva Convention definition A prisoner of war (POW) is a soldier, sailor, airman, or marine who is imprisoned by an enemy power during or immediately after an armed conflict. ...

Crucifixion as a devotional practice

Since at least the mid-1800s, a group of Catholic flagellants in New Mexico called Hermanos de Luz ('Brothers of Light') have annually conducted reenactments of Jesus Christ's crucifixion during Holy Week, where a penitent is tied—but not nailed—to a cross. Some very devout Catholics are voluntarily, non-lethally crucified for a limited time on Good Friday, to imitate the suffering of Jesus Christ. A notable example is the ceremonial re-enactment that has been performed yearly in the town of Iztapalapa, on the outskirts of Mexico City, since 1833. [4] The Flagellants were a 13th and 14th century Christian movement. ... Capital Santa Fe Largest city Albuquerque Area  Ranked 5th  - Total 121,665 sq mi (315,194 km²)  - Width 342 miles (550 km)  - Length 370 miles (595 km)  - % water 0. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Good Friday is a holy day celebrated by most Christians on the Friday before Easter or Pascha. ... Iztapalapa is one of the 16 delegaciones (boroughs) into which Mexicos Federal District is divided. ... (Spanish: Ciudad de México, México D.F. or simply México, pronounced IPA: ) is the capital city of the nation of Mexico. ... 1833 was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ...

Devotional crucifixions are also common in the Philippines, even driving nails through the hands (e.g. a man vowed to do it 15 times after a difficult childbirth). In San Pedro Cutud, devotee Ruben Enaje has been crucified 20 times, as of 2006, during Passion Week celebrations. [5] [6] San Pedro Cutud is a town in Pampanga province in the Philippines, approximately 70 kilometers north of Manila. ... Holy Week is the Christian week from Holy Monday through Easter (Resurrection) Sunday. ...

In many cases the person portraying Jesus is previously subjected to flagellation (e.g. flailing) and wears a crown of thorns. Sometimes there is a whole passion play, sometimes only the mortification of the flesh. Whipping on a post Flagellation is the act of whipping (Latin flagellum, whip) the human body. ... Jesus Carrying the Cross as portrayed by El Greco - Domenikos Theotokopoulos, 1580 In Christianity, the Crown of Thorns, one of the instruments of the Passion, was the woven chaplet of thorn branches worn by Jesus before his crucifixion. ... A Passion play is a dramatic presentation depicting the suffering and death of Jesus. ...

Parody

Crucifixion (Hypercubic Body) by Salvador Dalí.

In a more jocular context, the victim of a prank (such as a bridegroom in 'macho' circles where he is traditionally abused at the end of his stag night) or of hazing may be bound to a cross as a variation of treeing. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (726x1139, 128 KB)Crucifixion (Hypercubic Body) by Salvador Dali. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (726x1139, 128 KB)Crucifixion (Hypercubic Body) by Salvador Dali. ... Salvador Felipe Jacinto Dalí Domènech, Marquis of Pubol or Salvador Felip Jacint Dalí Domènech (May 11, 1904 – January 23, 1989), known popularly as Salvador Dalí, was a Spanish artist and one of the most important painters of the 20th century. ... Hazing is often ritualistic test, which may constitute harassment, abuse or humiliation with requirements to perform meaningless tasks; sometimes as a way of initiation into a social group. ... The Glenbrook North High School hazing incident concerned many people worldwide Hazing is often ritualistic harassment, abuse, or humiliation with requirements to perform meaningless tasks, sometimes as a way of initiation into a social group. ...

On October 26, 1996, a mock crucifixion was staged by Extreme Championship Wrestling wrestlers Raven and The Sandman for the High Incident event held at the ECW Arena. In this mock crucifixion, Raven tied Sandman to a cross and placed a crown of barbed wire (mocking the Crown of Thorns) on Sandman's head. ECW and Raven subsequently (and for Raven, reluctantly) apologized for the incident. This incident was instrumental in Kurt Angle signing with the World Wrestling Federation instead of ECW, as Angle was at the show and was "horrified" by the goings on. Afterwards Angle threatened ECW owner Paul Heyman with a lawsuit if Angle was ever associated, in any way, with the mock crucifixion. October 26 is the 299th day of the year (300th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 66 days remaining. ... 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year for the Eradication of Poverty. ... Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) was a professional wrestling promotion that was founded in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1992 by Tod Gordon, and closed when his successor, Paul Heyman, declared bankruptcy in April 2001. ... Professional wrestling is generally any form of performance art in which pro-wrestlers receive payment for participating. ... Scott Levy (born September 8, 1964) is an American professional wrestler, better known by his ring name, Raven. ... James (Jim) Fullington (born June 16, 1963), better known as The Sandman, is an American professional wrestler, best known for his career with Extreme Championship Wrestling, where he was dubbed The Hardcore Icon. ... The New Alhambra Arena. ... A selection of forms of barbed wire. ... Kurt Steven Angle (born on December 9, 1968) is an American professional wrestler and former amateur wrestler, who is currently working for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA). ... World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc. ... Paul Buster Heyman (born September 11, 1965) is a professional wrestling manager, on-air talent, and former promoter. ...

On a taped edition of WWF Monday Night RAW, which aired on December 8, 1998 (recorded on December 2), The Undertaker handcuffed Stone Cold Steve Austin, crucifix-style, to a large version of the Undertaker's symbol [7], which was a combination of a shovel, pick, and sickle (the tools of a real undertaker); which resembled a cross. This caused announcer Jim Ross to proclaim 'Austin has been crucified!' However, later that week, Ross suffered a bout of Bells palsy, and WWF fans already started complaining about the event. To save face, the WWF edited out all audio and video footage of Jim Ross from that episode and had Michael Cole and Jerry Lawler provide post-production commentary. In addition, when the crucifixion angle played, Cole said 'Austin has been tied to the Undertaker's symbol!'. WWE Raw (whose trademark is capitalized RAW) is the Monday night professional wrestling television program for World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and is the primary broadcast of the Raw brand. ... December 8 is the 342nd day (343rd in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 1998 (MCMXCVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year of the Ocean. ... December 2 is the 336th day (337th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Mark William Calaway (born March 24, 1965 [1]) is an American professional wrestler better known by the ring name, The Undertaker. ... Steven James Williams (born Steven James Anderson on December 18, 1964), better known by his ring name Stone Cold Steve Austin, is an American actor and former professional wrestler. ... James William (Jim) Ross, also known as J.R., or Good Ol J.R. (born January 3, 1954), is a professional wrestling executive and a play-by-play announcer working for World Wrestling Entertainment on WWE RAW. To many peers, Ross is considered to be one of the best wrestling... Bells palsy (facial palsy) is characterised by facial drooping due to malfunction of the facial nerve (VII cranial nerve), which controls the muscles of the face. ... World Wrestling Entertainment, Inc. ... Sean Coulthard Sean Coulthard (better known by his stage name of Michael Cole) is the current play-by-play announcer for World Wrestling Entertainments SmackDown! brand along with his partner, Tazz. ... Jerry ONeil Lawler (born November 29, 1949) is a professional wrestler and wrestling commentator, known throughout the wrestling world as The King. He currently works for World Wrestling Entertainment as a color commentator for its RAW brand. ...

Shortly after WrestleMania XV, the Undertaker mock-crucified The Big Boss Man on his symbol. Finally, on the edition of Monday Night RAW that had been aired on the Monday prior to Over the Edge 1999, the Undertaker attempted to mock-crucify Austin again, but Austin reversed it, causing the Undertaker to be crucified. The WWF, which has since become the WWE, has not staged a mock-crucifixion since. WrestleMania XV was the fifteenth annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view event from the World Wrestling Federation. ... Raymond (Ray) Traylor (May 2, 1962 – September 22, 2004) was an American professional wrestler. ... Over the Edge was a WWF pay-per-view event, held in 1998 and 1999. ...

Singer Madonna had opened her concerts during her recent tour with a mock crucifixion, complete with a Crown of Thorns. This has caused considerable controversy, especially when she pulled the stunt at a concert near Vatican City in 2006. Madonna Louise Ciccone (born August 16, 1958), better known worldwide by only her first name, is an iconic American pop singer, songwriter, musician, record and film producer, dancer, actress, author, and peace advocate whose level of fame and success has earned her superstar status for over two decades. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Crucifixion was parodied in the comedy film Monty Python's Life of Brian (1979). Monty Pythons Life Of Brian is a 1979 comedy by Monty Python, which deals with the life of Brian Cohen (played by Graham Chapman), a young man born on the same night as Jesus, and right down the street from him as well. ...

Marilyn Manson has parodied the crucifixion of Jesus several times, in videos such as "I Don't Like The Drugs But The Drugs Like Me" and "Coma White". Marilyn Manson redirects here. ...

Famous crucifixions

• The rebel slaves of the Third Servile War: Between 73 BC and 71 BC a band of slaves, eventually numbering about 120,000, under the (at least partial) leadership of Spartacus were in open revolt against the Roman republic. The rebellion was eventually crushed, and while Spartacus himself most likely died in the final battle of the revolt, approximately 6,000 of his followers were crucified along the 200 km road between Capua and Rome, as a warning to any other would-be rebels.
• Jesus of Nazareth: the best-known victim of crucifixion in history, Jesus Christ, was condemned to crucifixion (most likely in AD 29) by Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea, at the instigation of the Jewish leaders who were scandalized by his claim to being the Messiah and his disdain for their religious practices. The original Greek text of the Gospels leaves doubt on whether the instrument used to execute Jesus was actually a cross (see sub-article Rendering of σταυρός (staurós)).
• Saint Peter, Christian apostle: according to tradition, Peter was crucified upside down at his own request (hence the Cross of St. Peter), as he did not feel worthy to die the same way as Jesus (for he had denied him three times previously). Note that upside-down crucifixion would not result in death from asphyxiation.
• Saint Andrew, Christian apostle: according to tradition, crucified on an X-shaped cross, hence the name St. Andrew's Cross
• Simeon of Jerusalem, 2nd Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified 106-107
• Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln, according to medieval ballad poetry crucified at nine by local Jews in 1255
• Archbishop Joachim of Nizhny Novgorod: reportedly crucified upside down, on the Royal Doors of the Cathedral in Sevastopol, Ukrainian SSR in 1920

Combatants Army of escaped slaves Roman Republic Commanders Crixus†, Oenomaus, Spartacus† (presumed dead, body never found) Caius Glaber, Publius Valerius, Gnaeus Clodianus, Lucius Publicola, Cassius, Marcus Licinius Crassus, Pompey Magnus, Lucullus. ... Spartacus by Denis Foyatier, 1830 Spartacus (ca. ... This article is becoming very long. ... This article concerns critical reconstructions of the Historical Jesus. ... Pontius Pilate (Latin Pontius Pilatus) was the governor of the small Roman province of Judea from 26 until 36? AD although Tacitus believed him to be the procurator of that province. ... The New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures (NWT) is a modern-language translation of the Bible published by the Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of New York, Inc. ... Saint Peter, also known as Simon ben Jonah/BarJonah, Simon Peter, Cephas and Kepha — original name Simon or Simeon (Acts 15:14) — was one of the Twelve Apostles whom Jesus chose from among his original disciples. ... St. ... Saint Andrew (Greek: Ανδρέας Andreas, manly), called in the Orthodox tradition Protocletos, or the First-called, is a Christian Apostle, brother of Saint Peter. ... Simeon of Jerusalem, son of Cleophas was the leader of the church of Jerusalem, sometimes called the Jewish Christians, and according to most Christian traditions the second Bishop of Jerusalem. ... The Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem is the head bishop of the Orthodox Church of Jerusalem, ranking fourth of nine patriarchs in the Eastern Orthodox Church. ... Hugh of Lincoln (1247 - August, 1255) was an English boy, whose disappearance prompted a blood libel with ramifications that reach until today. ... Nizhny Novgorod (Russian: ), colloquially shortened as Nizhny and also transliterated into English as Nizhniy Novgorod or Nizhni Novgorod or Nizhnii Novgorod, is the fourth largest city of Russia, ranking after Moscow, St. ... now. ... Motto: Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! (Transliterated: Proletarii vsekh stran, soedinyaytes!) (Russian: Workers of the world, unite!) Anthem: The Internationale (1922-1944) Hymn of the Soviet Union (1944-1991) Capital (largest city) Moscow None; Russian de facto Government Federation of Soviet Republics  - Last President Mikhail Gorbachev  - Last Premier Ivan Silayev Establishment October Revolution   - Declared 30... 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar) // Events January January 3 - Babe Ruth is traded by the Boston Red Sox to the New York Yankees for $125,000, the largest sum ever paid for a player at that time. ...

Crucifixion of Jesus in the movies

Movies dating back to the days of the silent films have depicted the crucifixion of Jesus. Most of these follow the traditional (and often inaccurate) pattern established by medieval and Renaissance artists, though there have been several notable exceptions. In The Passover Plot (1976) the two thieves aren't shown to either side of Jesus but instead one is on a cross behind and facing him while the other is on a cross in front of and facing away from him. Jesus (1979) may be the first Biblical movie to show the nails being driven through the wrists rather than the palms. It is also one of the first movies to show Jesus carrying just the crossbeam to Calvary rather than the entire cross. The Last Temptation of Christ is the first movie to show Jesus naked on the cross^{[citation needed]}. In The Gospel of John (2003), Jesus' feet are shown being nailed through the ankle to each side of the upright portion of the cross. In The Passion of the Christ (2004), the crucifixion scene depicts Jesus's hands being impaled, and the centurians dislocationg his shoulder in order to impale his right hand, and impaling his feet, and then turning the cross over to block the nails from coming out. A silent film is a film which has no accompanying soundtrack. ... The Passover Plot (ISBN 1852308362) is the name of a controversial, best-selling book (©1965), by British Biblical scholar Hugh J. Schonfield. ... Jesus (8–2 BC/BCE to 29–36 AD/CE),[1] also known as Jesus of Nazareth, is the central figure of Christianity. ... The Last Temptation of Christ, also published as The Last Temptation, is a novel written by Nikos Kazantzakis, first published in 1951. ... The Gospel according to John is the fourth gospel document in the sequence of the canon of the New Testament, and scholars agree it was the fourth to be written down. ... The Passion of the Christ (2004) is a film about the last twelve hours of the life of Jesus Christ, known to Christians as the Passion. Directed by Mel Gibson, it was nominated for three Academy Awards: best cinematography, best makeup, and best original score. ...

See also

Asphyxia is a condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body. ... The Atonement, arguably the single greatest act of love, was initiated and accomplished by Jesus Christ as a means for members of the human family to reunite with God, as documented by the Bible and testified by other Christian scripture. ... Capital punishment, or the death penalty, is the execution of a convicted criminal by the state as punishment for crimes known as capital crimes or capital offences. ... A crucifix amidst the cornfields near Mureck in rural Styria, Austria A handheld crucifix A crucifix in front of the Holy Spirit Church in Košice, Slovakia A crucifix is a cross with a representation of Jesuss body, or corpus. ... Suicide by hanging. ... Woodblock print of Vlad III Dracula attending a mass impalement. ... For other uses, see Torture (disambiguation). ... Burning of two sodomites at the stake outside Zürich, 1482 (Spiezer Schilling) Execution by burning has a long history as a method of punishment for crimes such as treason and for other unpopular acts such as heresy and the putative practice of witchcraft (burning, however, was actually less common...

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to:

Crucifixion

• This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.

Image File history File links Commons-logo. ... Wikimedia Commons logo by Reid Beels The Wikimedia Commons (also called Commons or Wikicommons) is a repository of free content images, sound and other multimedia files. ... Encyclopædia Britannica, the 11th edition The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911) is perhaps the most famous edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. ... The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ...

Notes

External links

• Orthodox Christian Icons of the Crucifixion
• The death of Jesus at WikiChristian
• New Scientist article on cause of death in crucifixion.
• "Forensic and Clinical Knowledge of the Practice of Crucifixion" by Dr. Frederick Zugibe
• Jesus's death on the cross, from a medical perspective
• "Crucifixion in antiquity - The Anthropological evidence" By Joe Zias
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Crucifixion
• [8]