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In physics or engineering, cryogenics is the study of the production of very low temperatures (below –150 °C, –238 °F or 123 K) and the behavior of materials at those temperatures. (Rather than the familiar temperature scales of Fahrenheit and Celsius, cryogenicists use the Kelvin (and formerly Rankine) scales.) Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... Engineering is the discipline and profession of applying scientific knowledge and utilizing natural laws and physical resources in order to design and implement materials, structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that realize a desired objective and meet specified criteria. ... Temperature is the physical property of a system which underlies the common notions of hot and cold; the material with the higher temperature is said to be hotter. ... For other uses, see Fahrenheit (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Celsius (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Kelvin (disambiguation). ... For the idealized thermodynamic cycle for a steam engine, see Rankine cycle. ...

Definitions and distinctions

The terms cryogenics, cryobiology and cryonics are frequently confused. Other new terms with the prefix cryo- have also been introduced.

Cryogenics

The branches of physics and engineering that involve the study of very low temperatures, how to produce them, and how materials behave at those temperatures.

Cryobiology

The branch of biology involving the study of the effects of low temperatures on organisms (most often for the purpose of achieving cryopreservation).

Cryonics

The emerging medical technology of cryopreserving humans and animals with the intention of future revival. Researchers in the field seek to apply the results of many sciences, including cryobiology, cryogenics, rheology, emergency medicine, etc.

Cryoelectronics

The field of research regarding superconductivity at low temperatures.

Cryotronics

The practical application of cryoelectronics.

Cryobiology is the study of living organisms, organs, biological tissues or biological cells at low temperatures. ... For the song by Girls Aloud see Biology (song) Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology (from Greek: Βιολογία - βίος, bio, life; and λόγος, logos, speech lit. ... Domains and Kingdoms Nanobes Acytota Cytota Bacteria Neomura Archaea Eukaryota Bikonta Apusozoa Rhizaria Excavata Archaeplastida Rhodophyta Glaucophyta Plantae Heterokontophyta Haptophyta Cryptophyta Alveolata Unikonta Amoebozoa Opisthokonta Choanozoa Fungi Animalia An ericoid mycorrhizal fungus Life on Earth redirects here. ... Cryopreservation of plant shoots. ... Not to be confused with cryogenics. ... Medical technology refers to the diagnostic or therapeutic application of science and technology to improve the management of health conditions. ... Cryopreservation of plant shoots. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... Rheology is the study of the deformation and flow of matter under the influence of an applied stress. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Cryoelectronics or cryolectronics is the study of superconductivity and its applications. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor, cooled with liquid nitrogen. ... Cryotronics is the production of electronics that utilize superconductivity, and is not to be confused with cryoelectronics or cryolectronics. ...

Etymology

The word cryogenics means "the production of freezing cold"; however the term is used today as a synonym for the low-temperature state. It is not well-defined at what point on the temperature scale refrigeration ends and cryogenics begins. The workers at the National Institute of Standards and Technology at Boulder, Colorado have chosen to consider the field of cryogenics as that involving temperatures below –180 °C (93.15 K). This is a logical dividing line, since the normal boiling points of the so-called permanent gases (such as helium, hydrogen, neon, nitrogen, oxygen, and normal air) lie below -180 °C while the Freon refrigerants, hydrogen sulfide, and other common refrigerants have boiling points above -180 °C. Synonyms (in ancient Greek, συν (syn) = plus and όνομα (onoma) = name) are different words with similar or identical meanings. ... Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space, or from a substance, and rejecting it elsewhere for the primary purpose of lowering the temperature of the enclosed space or substance and then maintaining that lower temperature. ... NIST logo The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST, formerly known as The National Bureau of Standards) is a non-regulatory agency of the United States Department of Commerce’s Technology Administration. ... Boulder is a Home Rule Municipality that is the county seat and most populous city of Boulder County, Colorado, in the United States. ... For other uses, see Celsius (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Kelvin (disambiguation). ... Italic text This article is about the boiling point of liquids. ... -1... General Name, symbol, number helium, He, 2 Chemical series noble gases Group, period, block 18, 1, s Appearance colorless Standard atomic weight 4. ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... For other uses, see Neon (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... Air redirects here. ... Freon is a trade name for a group of chlorofluorocarbons used primarily as a refrigerant. ... Hydrogen sulfide (or hydrogen sulphide) is the chemical compound with the formula H2S. This colorless, toxic and flammable gas is responsible for the foul odour of rotten eggs and flatulence. ...

Industrial application

Liquefied gases, such as liquid nitrogen and liquid helium, are used in many cryogenic applications. Liquid nitrogen is the most commonly used element in cryogenics and is legally purchasable around the world. Liquid helium is also commonly used and allows for the lowest attainable temperatures to be reached. Liquid air is air that has been liquified by compression and cooled to very low temperatures. ... A tank of liquid nitrogen, used to supply a cryogenic freezer (for storing laboratory samples at a temperature of about -150 Celsius). ...

These liquids are held in either special containers known as Dewar flasks, which are generally about six feet tall (1.8 m) and three feet (91.5 cm) in diameter, or giant tanks in larger commercial operations. Dewar flasks are named after their inventor, James Dewar, the man who first liquefied hydrogen. Museums typically display smaller vacuum flasks fitted in a protective casing. A Dewar flask is a vessel designed to provide very good thermal insulation. ... For other persons named James Dewar, see James Dewar (disambiguation). ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... Lunchbox and vacuum bottle owned by Harry S. Truman A vacuum flask or Thermos flask is a bottle that reduces heat transfer from the inside to the outside and conversely to a minimum, and therefore keeps warm drinks warm and refrigerated drinks cold. ...

Cryogenic transfer pumps are the pumps used on LNG piers to transfer Liquefied Natural Gas from LNG Carriers to LNG storage tanks. A LNG (liquefied natural gas) pier is a specialized kind of working pier designed for the loading and offloading of liquefied natural gas from ships to shore based tanks. ... Liquefied natural gas or LNG is natural gas that has been processed to remove either valuable components e. ... An LNG carrier is a ship designed for transporting liquefied natural gas. ... // A tank is a container, usually for liquids, sometimes for gases. ...

Cryogenic processing

The field of cryogenics advanced during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to low temperatures showed more resistance to wear. Based on this theory of cryogenic hardening, the commercial cryogenic processing industry was founded in 1966 by Ed Busch. With a background in the heat treating industry, Busch founded a company in Detroit called CryoTech in 1966. Though CryoTech later merged with 300 Below to create the largest and oldest commercial cryogenics company in the world, they originally experimented with the possibility of increasing the life of metal tools to anywhere between 200%-400% of the original life expectancy using cryogenic tempering instead of heat treating. This evolved in the late 1990s into the treatment of other parts (that did more than just increase the life of a product) such as musical instruments or amplifier valves (improved sound quality), brass instruments (improved tonal characteristics), baseball bats (greater sweet spot), golf clubs (greater sweet spot), racing engines (greater performance under stress), firearms (less warping after continuous shooting), knives, razor blades, brake rotors and even pantyhose. The theory was based on how heat-treating metal works (the temperatures are lowered to room temperature from a high degree causing certain strength increases in the molecular structure to occur) and supposed that continuing the descent would allow for further strength increases. Using liquid nitrogen, CryoTech formulated the first early version of the cryogenic processor. Unfortunately for the newly-born industry, the results were unstable, as components sometimes experienced thermal shock when they were cooled too fast. Some components in early tests even shattered because of the ultra-low temperatures. In the late twentieth century, the field improved significantly with the rise of applied research, which coupled microprocessor based industrial controls to the cryogenic processor in order to create more stable results. Cryogenic hardening is a heat treatment in which the material is cooled to cryogenic temperatures, usually using liquid nitrogen. ... A Cryogenic Processor is a unit designed to reach ultra-low temperatures (usually around -300°F / -150°C) at a slow rate in order to prevent thermal shock to the components being treated. ... Heat treatment is a method used to alter the physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. ... Detroit redirects here. ... Cryogenic hardening is a heat treatment in which the material is cooled to cryogenic temperatures, usually using liquid nitrogen. ... A Cryogenic Processor is a unit designed to reach ultra-low temperatures (usually around -300°F / -150°C) at a slow rate in order to prevent thermal shock to the components being treated. ... Thermal shock and thermal loading refer to the disfuntion (and perhaps, crack) of a material due to the heating, especially non-stationary and non-uniform. ... A Cryogenic Processor is a unit designed to reach ultra-low temperatures (usually around -300°F / -150°C) at a slow rate in order to prevent thermal shock to the components being treated. ...

Cryogens, like liquid nitrogen, are further used for specialty chilling and freezing applications. Some chemical reactions, like those used to produce the active ingredients for the popular statin drugs, must occur at low temperatures of approximately -100 °C. Special cryogenic chemical reactors are used to remove reaction heat and provide a low temperature environment. The freezing of foods and biotechnology products, like vaccines, requires nitrogen in blast freezing or immersion freezing systems. Certain soft or elastic materials become hard and brittle at very low temperatures, which makes cryogenic milling (grinding) an option for some materials that cannot easily be milled at higher temperatures. General Name, symbol, number nitrogen, N, 7 Chemical series nonmetals Group, period, block 15, 2, p Appearance colorless gas Standard atomic weight 14. ... Lovastatin, the first statin to be marketed The statins (or HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors) form a class of hypolipidemic drugs used to lower cholesterol levels in people with or at risk of cardiovascular disease. ... In chemical engineering, chemical reactors are vessels designed to contain chemical reactions. ... A vaccine is an antigenic preparation used to establish immunity to a disease. ... “Brittle” redirects here. ... An ancient Chinese tomb model of a foot-powered mill, Eastern Han Dynasty (25 - 220 AD), Freer Gallery of Art. ...

Fuels

Another use of cryogenics is cryogenic fuels. Cryogenic fuels, mainly hydrogen, have been used as rocket fuels. (Oxygen is used as an oxidizer of hydrogen, but oxygen is not, strictly speaking, a fuel.) For example, NASA's workhorse space shuttle uses cryogenic hydrogen fuel as its primary means of getting into orbit, as did all of the rockets built for the Soviet space program by Sergei Korolev. (This was a bone of contention between him and rival engine designer Valentin Glushko, who felt that cryogenic fuels were impractical for large-scale rockets such as the ill-fated N-1 rocket spacecraft.) Cryogenic fuels are fuels that requires storage at extremely low temperatures. ... This article is about the chemistry of hydrogen. ... This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... ed|other uses|reduction}} Illustration of a redox reaction Redox (shorthand for reduction/oxidation reaction) describes all chemical reactions in which atoms have their oxidation number (oxidation state) changed. ... For other uses, see NASA (disambiguation). ... This article is about the space vehicle. ... Two bodies with a slight difference in mass orbiting around a common barycenter. ... Soviet Soyuz rockets like the one pictured above were the first reliable means to transport objects into Earth orbit. ... Sergei Pavlovich Korolev (Серге́й Па́влович Королёв) (December 30, 1906– January 14, 1966) was the head Soviet rocket engineer and designer during the space race, known only as the chief designer during his lifetime. ... Valentin Petrovich Glushko (born September 2, 1908 in Odessa, Ukraine, died January 10, 1989) was a Russian engineer and rocketry pioneer. ... Two N1 Moon rockets appear on the pads at Baikonur Cosmodrome in early July 1969. ...

Russian aircraft manufacturer Tupolev is currently researching a version of its popular design Tu-154 with a cryogenic fuel system, known as the Tu-155. The plane uses a fuel referred to as liquefied natural gas or LNG, and made its first flight in 1989. Tupolev (Russian: Туполев) is a Russian aerospace and defence company. ... The Tupolev Tu-154 is a Russian medium-range trijet airliner. ... Overhead view of Tu-154 airliner, operated by Aeroflot at Moscow airport. ... Liquefied natural gas or LNG is natural gas that has been processed to remove either valuable components e. ...

Production

Cryogenic cooling of devices and material is usually achieved via the use of liquid nitrogen, liquid helium, or a cryocompressor (which uses high pressure helium lines). A tank of liquid nitrogen, used to supply a cryogenic freezer (for storing laboratory samples at a temperature of about -150 Celsius). ... Helium exists in liquid form only at very low temperatures. ...

Detectors

Cryogenic temperatures, usually well below 77 K (-196 °C) are required to operate cryogenic detectors. Introduction Cryogenic detectors are detectors that operate usualy at (very) low temperatures, well below 77 degrees Kelvin the liquefaction temperature of nitrogen. ...

See also

• 1 E2 K
• Absolute zero
• Coldest temperature recorded on Earth
• Cryocoolers
• Cryogenic processor
• Cryogenic tempering
• Cryobiology
• Cryonics
• Cryopreservation
• Ex-situ conservation
• Frozen zoo
• Important publications in cryogenics
• Liquid nitrogen
• Quantum hydrodynamics, Superfluidity or Superconductivity
• Superconductivity
• Superconducting RF
• Wildlife conservation
• Apollo 13

To help compare different orders of magnitude this page lists temperatures between 100 kelvins and 1000 kelvins. ... For other uses, see Absolute Zero (disambiguation). ... // The North Pole is the coldest place on Earth, with the lowest natural temperature ever recorded on Earth of −89 Â°C (−131°F) having been recorded there in 1983 at the Russian Vostok Station. ... Cryocoolers are refrigerators used to reach cryogenic temperatures. ... A Cryogenic Processor is a unit designed to reach ultra-low temperatures (usually around -300°F / -150°C) at a slow rate in order to prevent thermal shock to the components being treated. ... Cryogenic hardening is a heat treatment in which the material is cooled to cryogenic temperatures, usually using liquid nitrogen. ... Cryobiology is the study of living organisms, organs, biological tissues or biological cells at low temperatures. ... Not to be confused with cryogenics. ... Cryopreservation of plant shoots. ... Ex-situ conservation means literally, off-site conservation. It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing it from an unsafe or threatened habitat and placing it or part of it under the care of humans. ... Modern policies of the zoo associations and zoos around the world have changed to putting extreme importance on keeping and breeding wild sourced pure species and subspecies of animals and birds in their registered endangered species breeding programs which will have a chance to be reintroduced and survive in the... This is a list of important publications in physics, organized by field. ... A tank of liquid nitrogen, used to supply a cryogenic freezer (for storing laboratory samples at a temperature of about -150 Celsius). ... Quantum hydrodynamics is more than the study of superfluidity. ... Superfluidity is a phase of matter characterised by the complete absence of viscosity. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor, cooled with liquid nitrogen. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor, cooled with liquid nitrogen. ... cheese ... This article is about the Apollo mission. ...

External links

• Cryogenic Society of America, Inc. (CSA)
• Sumitomo (SHI) Cryogenics of America, Inc.
• Lancaster University, Ultra Low Temperature Physics - ULT research group homepage
• Tupolev's pages regarding Cryogenic airliners
• Cryogenics, Key to Advanced Science and Technology
• An Introduction to Cryogenics
• A practical application of Cryogenics
• Cryo Diffusion - Cryogenic equipment
• SASPG International - Cryogenic equipment