In many countries there exists a separation of church and state and freedom of religion. Some of these countries are, however, also concerned with possible abuses by cults and have taken restrictive measures against some of their activities. Those measures were generally motivated by various crimes committed inside cults, especially by a string of murderous incidents involving doomsday cults circa 1995. The separation of church and state is a concept and philosophy in modern thought and practice, whereby the structures of state or national government are proposed as needing to be separate from those of religious institutions. ... Freedom of religion is a modern legal concept of being free as a matter of right, while freedom of worship is based upon the free expression of that right. ... This article does not discuss cult in its original sense of religious practice; for that usage see Cult (religion). ...

There exists a controversy regarding religious tolerance between the United States and several European countries, especially France and Germany that have enacted legislation against cults. Critics of such measures claim that the counter-cult movement and the anti-cult movement have succeeded in influencing governments in transferring the public's abhorrence of doomsday cults and make the generalization that it is directed against all small or new religious movements without discrimination—on the other some European goverments see the United States attitude as lack of responsibility of the state regarding the wellbeing of its citizens, especially concerning children and incapacitated persons, and claim that it is, at least partially due to lobbying of cults and cult apologists with the United States government.

Council of Europe

While the US constitution allows no legislation on religion, the European view is different: The Council of Europe to which 46 European nations belong, has since 1953 a "Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms" in force, which defines religious freedom and sets certain limits to it: The Palace of Europe in Strasbourg The Council of Europe is an international organisation of 46 member states in the European region. ...

Article 9 Freedom of thought, conscience and religion

1. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching, practice and observance.

2. Freedom to manifest one’s religion or beliefs shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of public safety, for the protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

On June 22, 1999 the The Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly adopted, unanimously, in view of the " the serious incidents which had occurred in recent years" a recommendation which gives priority to the prevention against dangerous sects (Council of Europe, 1999). It concludes that major legislation on sects is undesirable, but it calls also on the member states to

• to support the setting up of independent, national or regional information centres on sects;
• to include information on the history and philosophy of important schools of thought and of religion in general school curricula;
• to use the normal procedures of criminal and civil law against illegal practices carried out by these groups;
• to encourage the setting up of non-governmental organisations to protect victims, but also;
• to take firm steps against any discrimination or marginalisation of minority groups and encourage a spirit of tolerance and understanding towards religious groups.

Belgium

In Belgium, the Belgian Parliamentary Commission on Cults submitted a report to the Belgian Parliament in 1997. The report differentiated in its conclusions between three types of "sectes": 1997 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

• the sect in strict sense (la secte strictu sensu). a group distinguished by a particular belief which is a normal expression of religious freedom
• harmful sectarian organizations (Les organisations sectaires nuisibles) defined as a group with real or pretended philosophic or religious vocation which in its organisation or its practices includes harmful illegal activities, harms individuals or society or interferes with human dignity.
• criminal associations (Les associations de malfaiteurs) defined as criminal organisations (frauds, money launderers, drug traffickers, pedophile cycles, etc.) using a cult-like or pseudo-religious front to disguise their criminal practices. ^{2(pg. 99-101)}

The report included a list of 189 organizations which had come up during the investigation, including the Amish Mission in Belgium, Buddhism, several Catholic groups such as Opus Dei, some Evangelical Christian denominations, Hasidic Judaism, Quakers, and Satanists. but stated clearly immediately before the listing: Amish couple in a horse-drawn buggy in rural Holmes County, Ohio, the site of the one of the largest concentration of Amish in the United States The Amish are a denomination of Anabaptists and a branch of Mennonites noted for their restricted use of modern devices such as automobiles... A replica of an ancient statue found among the ruins of a temple at Sarnath Buddhism is a religion and philosophy based on the teachings of the Buddha, Siddhārtha Gautama, who lived between approximately 566 and 486 BCE. Originating in India, Buddhism gradually spread throughout Asia to Central Asia... Central Message of Saint Josemaría Escrivá, Founder of Opus Dei: Joy comes from knowing we are children of God. ... Evangelical has several distinct meanings: In its original sense, it means belonging or related to the Gospel (Greek: euangelion - good news) of the New Testament. ... Hasidic Judaism (Hebrew: Chasidut חסידות) is a Haredi Jewish religious movement. ... The Religious Society of Friends, commonly known as Quakers, or Friends, is a religious community founded in England in the 17th century. ... Satanism is a religious or philosophical movement centered around Satan or another entity identified with Satan, or centered around the forces of nature, particularly human nature, represented by Satan as an archetype. ...

"This listing does not constitute a specific position or a judgment by the commission. The fact that a movement is listed here, even if at the instigation of an official instance, does not signify that the commission regards it as a sect or regards it as dangerous. (Cette énumération ne constitue donc ni une prise de position, ni un jugement de valeur de la part de la commission. Ainsi, le fait pour un mouvement d'y figurer, même si c'est à l'initiative d'une instance officielle, ne signifie pas que pour la commission, il soit une secte, et a fortiori qu'il soit dangereux.) ^{2(pg. 227)}

The Quakers complained to Deputy Prime Ministers about their inclusion on the list, pointed out their humanitarian aid programs, and requested to see the evidence against them which had been presented the federal police in a closed session to the Parliamentary Commission. They were unsuccessful in their appeal.

As a consequence of the advice of the commission to the parliament, a law was accepted to observe cults that possibly break the law. This resulted in the foundation of a centre on June 2, 1998 for the information and advice on harmful cults, located in Brussels [1]. 2 June is the 153rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (154th in leap years), with 212 days remaining. ... 1998 is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year of the Ocean. ... Emblem of the Brussels-Capital Region Flag of The City of Brussels Brussels (Dutch: Brussel, French: Bruxelles, German: Brüssel) is the capital of Belgium and is considered by many to be the headquarters of the European Union, as two of its four main institutions have their headquarters in the...

China

An extreme form of measures against "cults" is the case of Falun Gong in China. The government of the People's Republic of China consider Falun Gong a dangerous cult and seeks to dismantle it; Falun Gong followers have been jailed, and occurrences of torture have been reported. Many anti-cult activists feel that, even if Falun Gong deserves the negative connotations associated with the term cult (which is not a judgement on which there is any clear consensus), the Chinese government violated the human rights of Falun Gong members in a criminal manner for which there can be no excuse. Falun emblem. ... Book published by the International Cultic Studies Association (a. ...

The People's Republic of China has also engaged in repression against Buddhist worshippers, especially monks and nuns, in Tibet, on suspicions that they work for the end of the Chinese domination of Tibet and the return of the Dalai Lama as ruler of Tibet. A Roman Catholic monk A monk is a person who practices monasticism, adopting a strict religious and ascetic lifestyle, usually in community with others following the same path. ... In general, a nun is a female ascetic who chooses to voluntarily leave the world and live her life in prayer and contemplation in a monastery or convent. ... Tibet (Tibetan: བོད་, Bod, pronounced pö in Lhasa dialect; Chinese: 西藏, pinyin: Xīzàng; older spelling Thibet) is a region and former independent country in Central Asia and the home of the Tibetan people. ... The 14th and current Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso (born 1935) The 13th Dalai Lama, Thubten Gyatso (1876-1933) In Tibetan Buddhism, the Dalai Lamas are a sequence of leaders, since 1391, from the Gelug (dge lugs) school. ...

Persecution of Christianity is also a problem in China. The Pope of the Roman Catholic church is not recognized, forcing the official church to go underground. Instead, a government-controlled "Patriotic" Catholic church has been established. Numerous priests and other religious have been arrested and brutalized. Christian proselytization is illegal and only one Bible may be brought into the country at a time. Despite these measures, China has a large number of Christians. Catholics alone number somewhere between 30 and 100 million. Christianity is a monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament writings of his early followers. ... The Pope is the Catholic Bishop and patriarch of Rome, and head of the Catholic Church. ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ...

Controversies have erupted concerning the reaction of various foreign governments with respect to the Chinese anti-Falun Gong and anti-Tibetan actions, or, rather, the lack thereof.[2] Some foreign governments, including the French, were criticized for complacency with respect to Chinese authorities, especially for restricting demonstrations against the Chinese government during official Chinese visits and ceremonies organized in collaboration with the Chinese government. [3] [4]

European Union

On May 22, 1984 the European Parliament passed a resolution with the title "New Organizations Operating Under the Protection Afforded to Religious Beliefs" that expressed the parliament's concern about the recruitment and treatment of the members of these new organizations. [5] May 22 is the 142nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (143rd in leap years). ... 1984 is a leap year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The European Parliament is the parliamentary body of the European Union (EU), directly elected by EU citizens once every five years. ...

On March 1997, a "Resolution on cults in Europe" by the European Parliament, reaffirmed its attachment to the basic principles of democracy and the rule of law, such as tolerance, and freedom of conscience, religion, thought, association and assembly, as well as calling on its Committee on Civil Liberties and Internal Affairs to meet and work on collecting and sharing information that would enable conclusions to be drawn on the best way to restrain undesirable activities by sects and on strategies to raise public awareness about them. [6]

On December 22, 1997 the Committee on Civil Liberties and Internal Affairs released an ammended resolution named "Resolution on Cults in the European Union" that was originally to be voted by the European Parliament in Strasbourg during the session of January 1998. The text of the resolution was rejected by the plenary of the European Parliament in July 1998 by a coalition of anti-cultists and religious liberties activists (the former complaining that it was too weak, and the latter considering it out of the scope of the European Parliament to decide). The resolution was sent back to the Commission for further consideration.

France

Main article: French legislation for the prevention and repression of cultic groups that infringe on human rights and fundamental freedoms. Following the second wave of suicides (and murders) of the Order of the Solar Temple in 1995, and the complaints of some individuals against the activities of some groups that present themselves as religious, the French government has encouraged public caution toward groups that exhibit sectarian (cultish) behavior. ...

Following from the consternation over the criminal excesses of certain cults in 1995, the French government has encouraged public caution toward some minority religious groups that it considers to be cults. As a consequence, reports on alleged sects (cults) were published, and legislation making it easier to prosecute alleged crimes committed by these groups was adopted; both the reports and the legislation have been controversial.

The French parliament passed a law (the About-Picard law), declared by its proponents to be aimed at repressing the excesses of groups infringing on human rights and fundamental freedoms. The law makes it possible to prosecute organizations, rather than individuals, for a number of crimes; in the case of established criminal behavior by an organization, courts may disband the organization. A controversial provision criminalizing "mental manipulation", included in early drafts, was not included in the final law, because of concerns about the vagueness of this notion.

This legislation attracted some critical remarks, but no condemnation, from the Helsinki International Federation for Human Rights (See index of documents), the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe, an Investigatory Commission for Violations of Human Rights hosted by the Omnium des Liberté, and from minority religious groups. The US government under the Clinton administration was also critical. The criticism argued that, if legislation was applied improperly, it could result in the arbitrary banning of unpopular religious groups; and that the legislation fostered in the public and officials an atmosphere of discrimination against members of emerging religions.

Germany

The German federal government does not accept Scientology's claim to be a religion but asserts that it is a business disguised as a religion. Scientology is monitored by the Verfassungsschutz (secret service) and Germany puts restrictions on its activities. [7]. The United States Congress failed to pass a resolution in 1997 related to "discrimination by the German Government against members of minority religious groups" that mentioned only Scientology related examples of discrimination [8]. See also status_of_religious_freedom_in_Germany. A Scientology Center on Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California Scientology is a system of beliefs, teachings and rituals, originally established as an alternative psychotherapy in 1952 by science-fiction author L. Ron Hubbard, then recharacterized by him in 1953 as an applied religious philosophy. ... Verfassungsschutz (Constitution Protection) is the short name for any of Germanys federal and state-based secret services for the interior. ... The Congress of the United States is the legislative branch of the federal government of the United States of America. ... This article or section should be merged with religion in Germany. ...

Switzerland

In Switzerland, there exists according to the constitution no legislation whatsoever about religion at the national level, only at the level of the cantons. There is no church or religion officially recognized at national level, no official recognition any religious groups, and no legislation forbidding any religious groups.

Some cases in which members of religious groups and purported cults were sentenced for breaking Swiss law are described below.

• On 5 December 1997, one of the leaders of the theosophic Universal Church was sentenced by the federal court to a fine for publishing antisemitic statements. The defense claimed that they are part of the teaching of the church, and its leader Peter Leach-Lewis has lost the right to enter Switzerland due to a similar charge.

• On 3 April 2003 the Swiss federal court confirmed a sentence against Uriella, the leader of the Fiat Lux group. She was to pay back a large sum to an ex-member. The court reasoned that normal loan regulations apply also between leaders and members of cults.

• On 10 June 1987 the penal court of Basel sentenced two Scientologists for continued extortion to a suspended prison sentence and fine because they had sold services at high prices to a physically and mentally handicapped person.

• In December 2003, the head of Scientology Lausanne was sentenced to a suspended prison sentence and the payment of damages for defamation of a former member.

December 5 is the 339th day (340th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Seal of the Theosophical Society Theosophy is a body of belief which holds that all religions are attempts by man to ascertain the Divine, and as such each religion has a portion of the truth. ... The Eternal Jew: 1937 German poster. ... April 3 is the 93rd day of the year (94th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 272 days remaining. ... June 10 is the 161st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (162nd in leap years), with 204 days remaining. ... Scientology is a system of beliefs and teachings, originally established as a secular philosophy in 1952 by author L. Ron Hubbard, and subsequently reoriented from 1953 as an applied religious philosophy. It is most prominently represented by the Church of Scientology. ... Extortion is a criminal offense, which occurs when a person obtains money, behaviour, or other goods and/or services from another by wrongfully threatening or inflicting harm to his person, reputation, or property. ... A Scientology Center on Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California Scientology is a system of beliefs, teachings and rituals, originally established as an alternative psychotherapy in 1952 by science-fiction author L. Ron Hubbard, then recharacterized by him in 1953 as an applied religious philosophy. ... In English and American law, and systems based on them, libel and slander are two forms of defamation (or defamation of character), which is the tort or delict of making a false statement of fact that injures someones reputation. ...

United Kingdom

In the United Kingdom a charity named INFORM was founded in 1988 by professor Eileen Barker of the London School of Economics, with the funding from the Home Office and the support of mainstream Churches. According to their website, their primary aim is "... to help people through providing them with accurate, balanced, up-to-date information about new and/or alternative religious or spiritual movements." [9] 1988 is a leap year starting on a Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The London School of Economics and Political Science, often referred to as the London School of Economics or the LSE, is a specialist university based in London, often regarded as the worlds most prestigious social science institution. ... The modern concept of Small Office and Home Office or SoHo , or Small or Home Office deals with the category of business which can be from 1 to 10 workers. ...

INFORM patrons includes Bishop Kallistos of Diokleia (Greek Orthodox Church) and Bishop Charles Henderson (Roman Catholic Church Bishop), Lord Dahrendorf and Lord Desai. Ralf Gustav Dahrendorf, Baron Dahrendorf (born May 1, 1929) is a German-British sociologist, philosopher and politician. ... Lord Meghnad Desai became director of the Centre for the Study of Global Governance in the London School of Economics. ...

United States

Timothy Miller, of the University of Kansas writes that no country in the world has a religious diversity as extensive as that found in the United States. He asserts that this religious diversity is due in significant part to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, which guarantees that no religion will have governmental endorsement and that all Americans are free to practice the religions of their choice.¹ The University of Kansas (often referred to as KU) is an institution of higher learning located in Lawrence, Kansas. ... The first ten Amendments to the U.S. Constitution make up the Bill of Rights. ... Page I of the Constitution of the United States of America Page II of the United States Constitution Page III of the United States Constitution Page IV of the United States Constitution The Syng inkstand, with which the Constitution was signed The Constitution of the United States is the supreme...

The frequent accusations by the United States goverment against countries such as France and Germany for what they consider to be the protection of their citizens against destructive and/or fraudulent cults of violating human rights are energetically protested by the countries concerned. [10] [11]. Shortly after German Scientologist Antje Victore 1996 received political asylum in the US due to alleged religious persecution in Germany, German newspapers showed evidence that Victores "proofs", letters denying her employment due to being a Scientologist, had been fabricated by fellow-Scientologist company owners [12]. Human rights are rights which some hold to be inalienable and belonging to all humans. ...

The U.S. Department of State's travel warning for India states that U.S. citizens should be aware that there have been unconfirmed reports of inappropriate sexual behavior by a prominent local religious leader at an ashram or religious retreat located in Andhra Pradesh. Most of the reports indicate that the subjects of these approaches have been young male devotees, including a number of U.S. citizens. Former followers of the popular guru Sathya Sai Baba (whose main ashram is located in Andhra Pradesh and who has been accused of sexually abusing young Americans) say that the State Department will confirm that they refer to him upon request.[13]. See also Allegations against Sathya Sai Baba. The United States Department of State, often referred to as the State Department, is the Cabinet-level foreign affairs agency of the United States government, equivalent to foreign ministries in other countries. ... Ashrams in ancient India, were Hindu hermitages where sages used to live in peace and tranquility amidst nature. ... Andhra Pradesh (ఆంధ్ర ప్రదేశం in Telugu) (Āndhra Prādesh), a state in South India, lies between 12°41 and 22°N latitude and 77° and 84°40E longitude . ... Sathya Sai Baba (born Sathya Narayana Raju with the family name Ratnakaram, circa 1926-1929) is a popular, controversial Indian guru who has millions of followers and hundreds of Sathya Sai Baba groups in many countries. ... Ashrams in ancient India, were Hindu hermitages where sages used to live in peace and tranquility amidst nature. ... The Indian guru Sathya Sai Baba is the subject of many allegations and intense controversy. ...

References

• Note 1: Miller, Timothy, Religious Movements in the United States: An Informal Introduction, The New Religious Movements Homepage at the University of Virginia. Available online

• Note 2: The Belgian Parliamentary Commission on Cults‘ report to the Belgian Parliament in 1997. availible online

• Kent, Stephen A. (2001). "The French and German versus American Debate over 'New Religions', Scientology, and Human Rights". Marburg Journal of Religion 6:11. [14]

• Council of Europe: Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms [15]

• Council of Europe. 1999. "Recommendation 1412-Illegal Activities of Sects." Legal Affairs and Human Rights Committee. 3pp; [16]