NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Cultural evolutionism

Sociocultural evolution(ism) is an umbrella term for theories of cultural evolution and social evolution, describing how cultures and societies have developed over time. Although such theories typically provide models for understanding the relationship between technologies, social structure, the values of a society, and how and why they change with time, they vary as to the extent to which they describe specific mechanisms of variation and social change. Image File history File links Cultural_evolution. ... Image File history File links Cultural_evolution. ... The word culture, from the Latin colo, -ere, with its root meaning to cultivate, generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ... Human relationships within an ethnically diverse society. ... See: relational model personal relationship mathematical relationship, including: inverse relationship direct relationship relation (mathematics). ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the surface of the planet for the first time and explore space. ... Social structure (also referred to as a social system) is a system of social relations. ... Value is a term that expresses the concept of worth in general, and it is thought to be connected to reasons for certain practices, policies or actions. ... Human relationships within an ethnically diverse society. ... A pocket watch. ... In music, variation is a formal technique where material is altered during repetition; reiteration with changes. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Most 19th century and some 20th century approaches aimed to provide models for the evolution of humankind as a whole, arguing that different societies are at different stages of social development. Many of the more recent 20th-century approaches focus on changes specific to individual societies and reject the idea of directional change, or social progress. Most archaeologists and cultural anthropologists work within the framework of modern theories of sociocultural evolution. Modern approaches to sociocultural evolution include neoevolutionism, sociobiology, theory of modernisation and theory of postindustrial society. Human beings are defined variously in biological, spiritual, and cultural terms, or in combinations thereof. ... For other meanings of development used in and outside social sciences, see development. ... Social progress is defined as a progress of society, which makes this society better. ... Archaeology, archeology, or archÃ¦ology (from the Greek words Î±ÏÏ‡Î±Î¯Î¿Ï‚ = ancient and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... Cultural anthropology, also called social anthropology or socio-cultural anthropology, forms one of four commonly-recognized fields of anthropology, the holistic study of humanity. ... Neoevolutionism is a social theory that tried to explain the evolution of societies by drawing on Charles Darwins theory of evolution and discarding some dogmas of the previous social evolutionism. ... Sociobiology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines that attempts to explain behaviour in all species by considering the evolutionary advantages of social behaviours. ... Social Evolution(ism), also known as Cultural evolution(ism) or Socio-cultural evolution(ism), is a anthropological and sociological social theory that holds that societies and cultures progress through stages of increasing development, that is, are influenced by the process of social progress and evolve from simple to complex forms. ... A post-industrial society is a proposed name for an economy that has undergone a specific series of changes in structure after a process of industrialization. ...

Overview

Virtually all anthropologists and sociologists assume that human beings have natural social tendencies and that particular human social behaviors have non-genetic causes and dynamics (i.e. they are learned in a social environment and through social interaction). Societies exist in complex social (i.e. interacting with other societies) and biotic (i.e. interacting with natural resources and constraints) environments, and adapt themselves to these environments. It is thus inevitable that all societies change. Anthropology (from the Greek word Î¬Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... A social animal is a loosely defined term for an organism that is highly interactive with other members of its species to the point of having a recognizable and distinct society. ... In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. ... Genetics (from the Greek genno Î³ÎµÎ½Î½ÏŽ= give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. ... The social environment or social context is a group of identical or similar social positions and social roles. ... Social interaction is a dynamic, changing sequence of social actions between individuals (or groups) who modify their actions and reactions due to the actions by their interaction partner(s). ... The social environment or social context is a group of identical or similar social positions and social roles. ... The eye is an adaptation. ...

Specific theories of social or cultural evolution are usually meant to explain differences between coeval societies, by positing that different societies are at different stages of development. Although such theories typically provide models for understanding the relationship between technologies, social structure, or values of a society, they vary as to the extent to which they describe specific mechanisms of variation and change. By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the surface of the planet for the first time and explore space. ... Social structure (also referred to as a social system) is a system of social relations. ... Value is a term that expresses the concept of worth in general, and it is thought to be connected to reasons for certain practices, policies or actions. ... Human relationships within an ethnically diverse society. ...

Early sociocultural evolution theories—the theories of August Comte, Herbert Spencer and Lewis Henry Morgan—developed simultaneously but independently of Charles Darwin's works and were popular from the late 19th century to the end of World War I. These 19th-century unilineal evolution theories claimed that societies start out in a primitive state and gradually become more civilised over time, and equated the culture and technology of Western civilisation with progress. Some forms of early sociocultural evolution theories (mainly unilineal ones) have led to much criticised theories like social Darwinism, and scientific racism, used in the past to justify existing policies of colonialism and slavery, and to justify new policies such as eugenics. Auguste Comte Auguste Comte (full name Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte) (January 17 (recorded January 19), 1798 _ September 5, 1857) was a positivist thinker and a founder of the discipline of sociology. ... Herbert Spencer. ... Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) was an American lawyer and amateur scholar best known for his work on cultural evolution and Native Americans. ... In his lifetime Charles Darwin gained international fame as an influential scientist examining controversial topics: portrait by Julia Margaret Cameron. ... Combatants Allies: Serbia, Russia, France, Romania, Belgium, British Empire, United States, Italy, and others Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire Casualties Military dead: 5 million Civilian deaths: 3 million Total of dead: 8 million Military dead: 4 million Civilian deaths: 3 million Total dead: 7 million The First... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... The word culture, from the Latin colo, -ere, with its root meaning to cultivate, generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the surface of the planet for the first time and explore space. ... For alternative meanings for The West in the United States, see the U.S. West and American West. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Scientific racism is racist propaganda disguised as science. ... It has been suggested that Corporate colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... It has been suggested that Chattel slavery be merged into this article or section. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ...

Most 19th-century and some 20th-century approaches aimed to provide models for the evolution of humankind as a single entity. Most 20th-century approaches, such as multilineal evolution, however, focus on changes specific to individual societies. Moreover, they reject directional change (i.e. orthogenetic, teleological or progressive change). Most archaeologists work within the framework of multilineal evolution. Other contemporary approaches to social change include neoevolutionism, sociobiology, theory of modernisation and theory of postindustrial society. Multilineal evolution is a 20th century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. ... Orthogenesis, orthogenetic evolution or autogenesis, is the hypothesis that life has an innate tendency to move, in a unilinear fashion, to ever greater perfection. ... Teleology is the philosophical study of purpose (from the Greek teleos, perfect, complete, which in turn comes from telos, end, result). ... Progress can refer to: The idea of a process in which societies or individuals become better or more modern (technologically and/or socially). ... Archaeology, archeology, or archÃ¦ology (from the Greek words Î±ÏÏ‡Î±Î¯Î¿Ï‚ = ancient and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... Neoevolutionism is a social theory that tried to explain the evolution of societies by drawing on Charles Darwins theory of evolution and discarding some dogmas of the previous social evolutionism. ... Sociobiology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines that attempts to explain behaviour in all species by considering the evolutionary advantages of social behaviours. ... Social Evolution(ism), also known as Cultural evolution(ism) or Socio-cultural evolution(ism), is a anthropological and sociological social theory that holds that societies and cultures progress through stages of increasing development, that is, are influenced by the process of social progress and evolve from simple to complex forms. ... A post-industrial society is a proposed name for an economy that has undergone a specific series of changes in structure after a process of industrialization. ...

Classical social evolutionism

Development

The 14th century Islamic scholar Ibn Khaldun, considered by some to be the father of sociology, concluded that societies are living organisms that experience cyclic birth, growth, maturity, decline, and ultimately death due to universal causes several centuries before the Western civilisation developed the science of sociology. Nonetheless, theories of social and cultural evolution were common in modern European thought. Prior to the 18th century, Europeans predominantly believed that societies on Earth were in a state of decline. European society held up the world of antiquity as a standard to aspire to, and Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome produced levels of technical accomplishment which Europeans of the Middle Ages sought to emulate. At the same time, Christianity taught that people lived in a debased world fundamentally inferior to the Garden of Eden and Heaven. During The Age of Enlightenment, however, European self-confidence grew and the notion of progress became increasingly popular. It was during this period that what would later become known as "sociological and cultural evolution" would have its roots. Islam (Arabic: ; ( â–¶ (helpÂ· info)), the submission to God) is a monotheistic faith, one of the Abrahamic religions and the worlds second-largest religion. ... Ibn Khaldun Ibn KhaldÅ«n (full name ) (Ø§Ø¨Ùˆ Ø²ÙŠØ¯ Ø¹Ø¨Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ø±ØÙ…Ù† Ø¨Ù† Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø¨Ù† Ø®Ù„Ø¯ÙˆÙ† Ø§Ù„ØØ¶Ø±Ù…ÙŠ ), (May 27, 1332/732AH to March 19, 1406/808AH) was a famous Arab historiographer and historian born in present-day Tunisia, and is sometimes viewed as one of the forerunners of modern historiography, sociology and economics. ... For alternative meanings for The West in the United States, see the U.S. West and American West. ... Western philosophy is a line of related philosophical thinking, beginning in Ancient Greece, and including the predominant philosophical thinking of Europe and its former colonies, and continues to this day. ... Earth (often referred to as The Earth) is the third planet in the solar system in terms of distance from the Sun, and the fifth in order of size. ... It has been suggested that Greco-Roman be merged into this article or section. ... Ancient Greece is the period of Greek history spanning much of the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins and lasting for close to a millennium, until the rise of Christianity. ... The Roman Forum was the central area around which ancient Rome developed. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as recounted in the New Testament. ... The Fall of Man by Lucas Cranach, a 16th century German depiction of Eden The Garden of Eden (from Hebrew Gan Ä’den, ×’Ö·Ö¼×Ÿ ×¢Öµ×“Ö¶×Ÿ) is described by the Book of Genesis as being the place where the first man - Adam - and woman - Eve - lived after they were created by God. ... Heaven is an afterlife concept found in many religions or spiritual philosophies. ... The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a larger period which includes the Age of Reason. ... Progress can refer to: The idea of a process in which societies or individuals become better or more modern (technologically and/or socially). ...

The Enlightenment thinkers often speculated that societies progressed through stages of increasing development and looked for the logic, order and the set of scientific truths that determined the course of human history. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, for example, argued that social development was an inevitable and determined process, similar to an acorn which has no choice but to become an oak tree. Likewise, it was assumed that societies start out primitive, perhaps in a Hobbesian state of nature, and naturally progress toward something resembling industrial Europe. Logic, from Classical Greek Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of criteria for the evaluation of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. ... History is often used as a generic term for information about the past, such as in geologic history of the Earth. When used as the name of a field of study, history refers to the study and interpretation of the record of human societies. ... Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel [] (August 27, 1770â€“November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, WÃ¼rttemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... Hobbes redirects here. ... State of nature is a term in political philosophy used in social contract theories to describe the hypothetical condition of humanity before the states foundation and its monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force. ...

While earlier authors such as Michel de Montaigne discussed how societies change through time, it was truly the Scottish Enlightenment which proved key in the development of sociocultural evolution. After Scotland's union with England in 1707, several Scottish thinkers pondered what the relationship between progress and the 'decadence' brought about by increased trade with England and the affluence it produced. The result was a series of "conjectural histories". Authors such as Adam Ferguson, John Millar, and Adam Smith argued that all societies pass through a series of four stages: hunting and gathering, pastoralism and nomadism, agricultural, and finally a stage of commerce. These thinkers thus understood the changes Scotland was undergoing as a transition from an agricultural to a mercantile society. Michel de Montaigne Michel Eyquem de Montaigne (IPA pronunciation: []) (February 28, 1533 â€“ September 13, 1592) was an influential French Renaissance writer, generally considered to be the inventor of the personal essay. ... The Scottish Enlightenment was a period of intellectual ferment in Scotland, running from approximately 1740 to 1800. ... The Acts of Union were twin Acts of Parliament passed in 1707 (taking effect on 26 March) by the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. ... Royal motto (French): Dieu et mon droit (Translated: God and my right) Englands location (dark green) within the United Kingdom (light green), with the Republic of Ireland (blue) to its west Languages None official English de facto Capital None official London de facto Largest city London Area â€“ Total Ranked... Adam Ferguson, sometimes known as Ferguson of Raith (June 20, 1723 (O.S.) â€“ February 22, 1816) was a philosopher, proto-sociologist and historian in the Scottish Enlightenment. ... John Millar of Glasgow (June 22, 1735 - May 30, 1801) was a Scottish philosopher and historian. ... Adam Smith, FRSE, (baptised June 5, 1723 â€“ July 17, 1790) was a Scottish political economist and moral philosopher. ... Commerce is the trading of something of value between two entities. ... Mercantilism is the economic theory that a nations prosperity depended upon its supply of gold and silver, that the total volume of trade is unchangeable. ...

Philosophical concepts of progress (such as those expounded by the German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel) developed as well during this period. In France authors such as Claude Adrien Helvétius and other philosophes were influenced by this Scottish tradition. Later thinkers such as Comte de Saint-Simon developed these ideas. August Comte in particular presented a coherent view of social progress and a new discipline to study it—sociology. The founders of sociology spent decades attempting to define their new discipline. In the course of this effort they tried several highly divergent pathways, some suggested by methods and contents of other sciences, others invented outright by the imagination of the scholar. Download high resolution version (490x709, 23 KB)from fr: This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (490x709, 23 KB)from fr: This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (August 27, 1770 - November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, in present-day southwest Germany. ... Claude Adrien HelvÃ©tius (February 26, 1715 - December 26, 1771) was a French philosopher and litterateur. ... The philosophes (French for philosophers) were a group of French intellectuals of the 18th century Enlightenment. ... Henri de Saint-Simon Claude Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de Saint-Simon, often referred to as Henri de Saint-Simon (October 17, 1760 â€“ May 19, 1825), the founder of French socialism, was born in Paris. ... Auguste Comte Auguste Comte (full name Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte) (January 17 (recorded January 19), 1798 _ September 5, 1857) was a positivist thinker and a founder of the discipline of sociology. ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ...

These developments took place in a wider context. The first process was colonialism. Although imperial powers settled most differences of opinion with their colonial subjects with force, increased awareness of non-Western peoples raised new questions for European scholars about the nature of society and culture. Similarly, effective administration required some degree of understanding of other cultures. Emerging theories of sociocultural evolution allowed Europeans to organise their new knowledge in a way that reflected and justified their increasing political and economic domination of others: colonised people were less evolved, colonising people were more evolved. When the 17th-century English philosopher Thomas Hobbes described primeval man as living in conditions in which there are "no arts, no letters, no society" and his life as "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short", he was very much proclaiming a popular conception of the "savage." Everything that was good and civilised resulted from the slow development out of this lowly state. Even rationalistic philosophers like Voltaire implicitly assumed that enlightenment gradually resulted in the upward progress of humankind. It has been suggested that Corporate colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... See also colonialism Imperialism is a policy of extending control or authority over foreign entities as a means of acquisition and/or maintenance of empires. ... Look up Administration in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Hobbes redirects here. ... Savage has various meanings. ... The last of Voltaires statues by Jean-Antoine Houdon (1781). ...

The second process was the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism which allowed and promoted continual revolutions in the means of production. Emerging theories of sociocultural evolution reflected a belief that the changes in Europe wrought by the Industrial Revolution and capitalism were obvious improvements. Industrialisation, combined with the intense political change brought about by the French Revolution, U.S. Constitution and Polish Constitution of May 3, 1791, which were paving the way for the dominance of democracy, forced European thinkers to reconsider some of their assumptions about how society was organised. A Watt steam engine in Madrid. ... For other uses, see Capitalism (disambiguation). ... The means of production are physical, non-human, inputs used in production. ... Liberty Leading the People, a painting by Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830 but which has come to be generally accepted as symbolic of French popular uprisings against the monarchy in general and the French Revolution in particular. ... Page I of the Constitution of the United States of America Page II of the United States Constitution Page III of the United States Constitution Page IV of the United States Constitution The Syng inkstand, with which the Constitution was signed The Constitution of the United States is the supreme... May 3rd Constitution (painting by Jan Matejko, 1891). ... The history of democracy traces back from its origins in prehistoric times to its re-emergence and rise from the 17th century to the present day. ...

Eventually, in the 19th century three great classical theories of social and historical change were created: the sociocultural evolutionism, the social cycle theory and the Marxist historical materialism theory. Those theories had one common factor: they all agreed that the history of humanity is pursuing a certain fixed path, most likely that of the social progress. Thus, each past event is not only chronologically, but causally tied to the present and future events. Those theories postulated that by recreating the sequence of those events, sociology could discover the laws of history. Social cycle theory is one of the earliest social theories in sociology. ... Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... Historical materialism (or what Marx himself called the materialist conception of history - materialistische Geschichtsauffassung) is a social theory and an approach to the study of history and sociology, normally considered the intellectual basis of Marxism. ... Social progress is defined as a progress of society, which makes this society better. ... For other senses of this word, see history (disambiguation). ...

Sociocultural evolutionism and the idea of progress

While sociocultural evolutionists agree that the evolution-like process leads to social progress, classical social evolutionists have developed many different theories, known as theories of unilineal evolution. Sociocultural evolutionism was the prevailing theory of early sociocultural anthropology and social commentary, and is associated with scholars like August Comte, Edward Burnett Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, Benjamin Kidd, L.T. Hobhouse and Herbert Spencer. Sociocultural evolutionism represented an attempt to formalise social thinking along scientific lines, later influenced by the biological theory of evolution. If organisms could develop over time according to discernable, deterministic laws, then it seemed reasonable that societies could as well. They developed analogies between human society and the biological organism and introduced into sociological theory such biological concepts as variation, natural selection, and inheritance—evolutionary factors resulting in the progress of societies through stages of savagery and barbarism to civilisation, by virtue of the survival of the fittest. Together with the idea of progress there grew the notion of fixed "stages" through which human societies progress, usually numbering three—savagery, barbarism, and civilisation—but sometimes many more. The Marquis de Condorcet listed 10 stages, or "epochs", the final one having started with the French Revolution, which was destined, in his eyes, to usher in the rights of man and the perfection of the human race. Some writers also perceived in the growth stages of each individual a recapitulation of these stages of society. Strange customs were thus accounted for on the assumption that they were throwbacks to earlier useful practices. This also marked the beginning of anthropology as a scientific discipline and a departure from traditional religious views of "primitive" cultures. This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Social progress is defined as a progress of society, which makes this society better. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Social commentary is the act of expressing an opinion on the nature of society. ... Auguste Comte Auguste Comte (full name Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte) (January 17 (recorded January 19), 1798 _ September 5, 1857) was a positivist thinker and a founder of the discipline of sociology. ... Edward Burnett Tylor. ... Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) was an American lawyer and amateur scholar best known for his work on cultural evolution and Native Americans. ... Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse (September 8, 1864 - June 21, 1929) was a British liberal politician, one of the theorists of new liberalism. ... Herbert Spencer. ... A speculative phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains, bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. ... In music, variation is a formal technique where material is altered during repetition; reiteration with changes. ... Natural selection is the process by which individual organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. ... Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. ... Herbert Spencer coined the phrase survival of the fittest Survival of the fittest is a phrase which is a shorthand for a concept relating to competition for survival or predominance. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word Î¬Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ...

The term "Classical Social Evolutionism" is most closely associated with the 19th-century writings of Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer (who coined the phrase "survival of the fittest") and William Graham Sumner. In many ways Spencer's theory of "cosmic evolution" has much more in common with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and August Comte than with contemporary works of Charles Darwin. Spencer also developed and published his theories several years earlier than Darwin. In regard to social institutions, however, there is a good case that Spencer's writings might be classified as 'Social Evolutionism'. Although he wrote that societies over time progressed, and that progress was accomplished through competition, he stressed that the individual (rather than the collectivity) is the unit of analysis that evolves, that evolution takes place through natural selection and that it affects social as well as biological phenomenon. Nonetheless, the publication of Darwin's works proved a boon to the proponents of sociocultural evolution. The world of social science took the ideas of biological evolution as an attractive solution to similar questions regarding the origins and development of social behaviour and the idea of a society as an evolving organism was a biological analogy that is taken up by many anthropologists and sociologists even today. Download high resolution version (1000x1541, 105 KB) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (1000x1541, 105 KB) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Auguste Comte Auguste Comte (full name Isidore Marie Auguste FranÃ§ois Xavier Comte) (January 17 (recorded January 19), 1798 - September 5, 1857) was a French positivist thinker and came up with the term of sociology to name the new science made by Saint-Simon. ... Herbert Spencer. ... Herbert Spencer coined the phrase survival of the fittest Survival of the fittest is a phrase which is a shorthand for a concept relating to competition for survival or predominance. ... William Graham Sumner (1840-1910) was the leading American advocate of Social Darwinism. ... Jean-Baptiste Lamarck Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (August 1, 1744 â€“ December 28, 1829) was a French naturalist and an early proponent of the idea that evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws. ... In his lifetime Charles Darwin gained international fame as an influential scientist examining controversial topics: portrait by Julia Margaret Cameron. ... In common speech, the word individual most often refers to a person, or, by analogy, to any specific object in a group of things. ...

Both Spencer and Comte view the society as a kind of organism subject to the process of growth—from simplicity to complexity, from chaos to order, from generalisation to specialisation, from flexibility to organisation. They agreed that the process of societies growth can be divided into certain stages, have their beginning and eventual end, and that this growth is in fact social progress—each newer, more evolved society is better. Thus progressivism became one of the basic ideas underlying the theory of sociocultural evolutionism. Growth can refer to: Auxology Bacterial growth Cell growth Economic growth For financial growth due to simple interest or compound interest see Interest Exponential growth Fungal growth Logistic growth Growth hormone Personal growth Population growth Tumours can sometimes be referred to as a growth This is a disambiguation page: a... Social progress is defined as a progress of society, which makes this society better. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

August Comte, known as father of sociology, formulated the law of three stages: human development progresses from the theological stage, in which nature was mythically conceived and man sought the explanation of natural phenomena from supernatural beings, through metaphysical stage in which nature was conceived of as a result of obscure forces and man sought the explanation of natural phenomena from them until the final positive stage in which all abstract and obscure forces are discarded, and natural phenomena are explained by their constant relationship. This progress is forced through the development of human mind, and increasing application of thought, reasoning and logic to the understanding of the world.^[1] Auguste Comte Auguste Comte (full name Isidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte) (January 17 (recorded January 19), 1798 _ September 5, 1857) was a positivist thinker and a founder of the discipline of sociology. ... Theology is reasoned discourse concerning God (Greek Î¸ÎµÎ¿Ï‚, theos, God, + Î»Î¿Î³Î¿Ï‚, logos, word or reason). It can also refer to the study of other religious topics. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Positivism can have several meanings. ...

Herbert Spencer, who believed that society was evolving toward increasing freedom for individuals; and so held that government intervention ought to be minimal in social and political life, differentiated between two phases of development, focusing is on the type of internal regulation within societies. Thus he differentiated between military and industrial societies. The earlier, more primitive military society has a goal of conquest and defence, is centralised, economically self-sufficient, collectivistic, puts the good of a group over the good of an individual, uses compulsion, force and repression, rewards loyalty, obedience and discipline. The industrial society has a goal of production and trade, is decentralised, interconnected with other societies via economic relations, achieves its goals through voluntary cooperation and individual self-restraint, treats the good of individual as the highest value, regulates the social life via voluntary relations, values initiative, independence and innovation.^[2] Conquest may refer to: An invasion Conquest, New York, a town located in Cayuga County, New York Conquest (film), (also called Marie Walewska) is a 1937 film starring Greta Garbo and Charles Boyer Conquest (game), a turn-based game playable via IRC Conquest: Frontier Wars, a real-time strategy computer... In military science, defense (or defence) is the art of preventing an enemy from conquering territory. ... Centralization is the process by which the activities of an organization, particularly those regarding decision-making, become concentrated within a particular location and/or group. ... The word economy can refer to any of several things: The economy of the world â€” see world economy The economy of a country â€” see economics and economic system Economy is financial soundness or affordability. ... Collective can also refer to the collective pitch flight control in helicopters A collective is a group of people who share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest, or work together on a specific project(s) to achieve a common objective. ... A fruit stand at a market. ... Decentralisation (American: decentralization) is any of various means of more widely distributing decision-making to bring it closer to the point of service or action. ...

Regardless of how scholars of Spencer interpret his relation to Darwin, Spencer proved to be an incredibly popular figure in the 1870s, particularly in the United States. Authors such as Edward Youmans, William Graham Sumner, John Fiske, John W. Burgess, Lester Frank Ward, Lewis H. Morgan and other thinkers of the gilded age all developed similar theories of social evolutionism as a result of their exposure to Spencer as well as Darwin. William Graham Sumner (1840-1910) was the leading American advocate of Social Darwinism. ... John Fiske (1842–1901), born Edmund Fisk Green, was an American philosopher and historian. ... Lester F. Ward (June 18, 1841 in Joliet, Illinois - April 18, 1913 in Washington, D.C.), American botanist and paleontologist and sociologist. ... Lewis H. Morgan Lewis Henry Morgan (November 21, 1818 â€“ December 17, 1881) was an American ethnologist, anthropologist and writer. ... The Gilded Age (c. ...

Lewis H. Morgan, an anthropologist whose ideas have had much impact on sociology, in his 1877 classic Ancient Societies differentiated between three eras: savagery, barbarism and civilisation, which are divided by technological inventions, like fire, bow, pottery in savage era, domestication of animals, agriculture, metalworking in barbarian era and alphabet and writing in civilisation era. Thus Morgan introduced a link between the social progress and technological progress. Morgan viewed the technological progress as a force behind the social progress, and any social change—in social institutions, organisations or ideologies have their beginning in the change of technology.^[3] Morgan's theories were popularised by Friedrich Engels, who based his famous work The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State on it. For Engels and other Marxists, this theory was important as it supported their conviction that materialistic factors—economical and technological—are decisive in shaping the fate of humanity. Image File history File links Lewis Henry Morgan from [1] File links The following pages link to this file: Lewis H. Morgan Sociocultural evolution ... Lewis H. Morgan Lewis Henry Morgan (November 21, 1818 â€“ December 17, 1881) was an American ethnologist, anthropologist and writer. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word Î¬Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Savage has various meanings. ... A barbarism is a word or expression that is not standard in a language. ... For other uses, see Civilization (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fire (disambiguation). ... Bow may mean: Bow (knot): A type of knot Bow (music): A device used to play string instruments Bow (ship): The foremost point of the hull of a ship or boat Bow (weapon): An archery weapon that uses elasticity to propel arrows Bow (human): Bowing is the act of lowering... Unfired green ware pottery on a traditional drying rack at Conner Prairie living history museum. ... Domesticated animals, plants, and other organisms are those whose collective behavior, life cycle, or physiology has been altered as a result of their breeding and living conditions being under human control for multiple generations. ... Turned chess pieces Metalworking is the craft and practice of working with metals to create parts or structures. ... A Specimen of typeset fonts and languages, by William Caslon, letter founder; from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ... See also Creative writing. ... Social progress is defined as a progress of society, which makes this society better. ... Origins of theory According to Czech philosopher Radovan Richta, in his 1967 publication “Man and Technology in the Revolution of Our Day”, technology (which he defines as “a material entity created by the application of mental and physical effort to nature in order to achieve some value”) evolves in three... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... A social institution is any institution in a socity that works to socialize the groups or people in it. ... Friedrich Engels (November 28, 1820, Wuppertalâ€“August 5, 1895) was a 19th-century German political philosopher. ... Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ...

Emile Durkheim, another of the "fathers" of sociology, has developed a similar, dichotomal view of social progress. His key concept was social solidarity, as he defined the social evolution in terms of progressing from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity. In mechanical solidarity, people are self-sufficient, there is little integration and thus there is the need for use of force and repression to keep society together. In organic solidarity, people are much more integrated and interdependent and specialisation and cooperation is extensive. Progress from mechanical to organic solidarity is based first on population growth and increasing population density, second on increasing "morality density" (development of more complex social interactions) and thirdly, on the increasing specialisation in workplace. To Durkheim, the most important factor in the social progress is the division of labour. David Émile Durkheim (April 15, 1858 - November 15, 1917) is known as the founder of modern sociology. ... A dichotomy is a division into two non-overlapping or mutually exclusive and jointly exhaustive parts. ... Humanitism is a philosophy born in academic circles from efforts in dialogue & universalism and in the minds of the populus at the close of the 2nd Millennium CE rather than one that can be ascribed to any one individual. ... Solidarity in sociology refers to the feeling or condition of unity based on common goals, interests, and sympathies among a groups members. ... Solidarity in sociology refers to the feeling or condition of unity based on common goals, interests, and sympathies among a groups members. ... Countries by population growth rate Population growth is changing of the amount of population over time. ... Social interaction is a dynamic, changing sequence of social actions between individuals (or groups) who modify their actions and reactions due to the actions by their interaction partner(s). ... Division of labour is generally speaking the specialisation of co-operative labour in specific, circumscribed tasks and roles, intended to increase efficiency of output. ...

Anthropologists Sir E.B. Tylor in England and Lewis Henry Morgan in the United States worked with data from indigenous people, whom they claimed represented earlier stages of cultural evolution that gave insight into the process and progression of evolution of culture. Morgan would later have a significant influence on Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who developed a theory of sociocultural evolution in which the internal contradictions in society created a series of escalating stages that ended in a socialist society (see Marxism). Tylor and Morgan elaborated the theory of unilinear evolution, specifying criteria for categorising cultures according to their standing within a fixed system of growth of humanity as a whole and examining the modes and mechanisms of this growth. Theirs was often a concern with culture in general, not with individual cultures. from Polish wiki from web site declaration of GNU Free Documentation License source::http://www. ... from Polish wiki from web site declaration of GNU Free Documentation License source::http://www. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word Î¬Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Edward Burnett Tylor. ... Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) was an American lawyer and amateur scholar best known for his work on cultural evolution and Native Americans. ... Indigenous peoples are: Peoples living in an area prior to colonization by a state Peoples living in an area within a nation-state, prior to the formation of a nation-state, but who do not identify with the dominant nation. ... Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818, Trier, Germany â€“ March 14, 1883, London) was an immensely influential German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ... Friedrich Engels (November 28, 1820, Wuppertalâ€“August 5, 1895) was a 19th-century German political philosopher. ... Marxism is the philosophy, social theory and political practice based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German socialist philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary. ...

Theorists usually measured progression (that is, the difference between one stage and the next) in terms of increasing social complexity (including class differentiation and a complex division of labour), or an increase in intellectual, theological, and aesthetic sophistication. These 19th-century ethnologists used these principles primarily to explain differences in religious beliefs and kinship terminologies among various societies. A Band Society is the simplest form of human society. ... Viewed historically or developmentally, a tribe consists of a social formation existing before the development of, or outside of, states. ... A chiefdom is any community led by an individual known as a chief. ... A state is an organized political community, occupying a territory, and possessing internal and external sovereignty, that enforces a monopoly on the use of force. ... Ethnology (greek ethnos: (non-greek, barbarian) people) is a genre of anthropological study, involving the systematic comparison of the folklore, beliefs and practices of different societies. ...

Lester Frank Ward developed Spencer's theory but unlike Spencer, who considered the evolution to be general process applicable to the entire world, physical and sociological, Ward differentiated sociological evolution from biological evolution. He stressed that humans create goals for themselves and strive to realise them, whereas there is no such intelligence and awareness guiding the non-human world, which develops more or less at random. He created a hierarchy of evolution processes. First, there is cosmogenesis, creation and evolution of the world. Then, after life develops, there is biogenesis. Development of humanity leads to anthropogenesis, which is influenced by the human mind. Finally, when society develops, so does sociogenesis, which is the science of shaping the society to fit with various political, cultural and ideological goals. Lester F. Ward (June 18, 1841 in Joliet, Illinois - April 18, 1913 in Washington, D.C.), American botanist and paleontologist and sociologist. ... Cosmogenesis is the term created by the French Jesuit Priest and Scientist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin to describe the cosmological process of the creation of the Universe. ... Biogenesis has two meanings. ... The mind is the term most commonly used to describe the higher functions of the human brain, particularly those of which humans are subjectively conscious, such as personality, thought, reason, memory, intelligence and emotion. ... Human relationships within an ethnically diverse society. ...

Edward Burnett Tylor, pioneer of anthropology, focused on the evolution of culture worldwide, noting that culture is an important part of every society and that it is also subject to the process of evolution. He believed that societies were at different stages of cultural development and that the purpose of anthropology was to reconstruct the evolution of culture, from primitive beginnings to the modern state. This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Edward Burnett Tylor. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word Î¬Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Sociocultural evolution(ism) is an umbrella term for theories of cultural evolution and social evolution, first proposed by scholars from diverse backgrounds in the nineteenth century, and since then by various anthropologists and sociologists and social theorists in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. ...

Ferdinand Tönnies describes the evolution as the development from informal society, where people have many liberties and there are few laws and obligations, to modern, formal rational society, dominated by traditions and laws and are restricted from acting as they wish. He also notes that there is a tendency of standardisation and unification, when all smaller societies are absorbed into the single, large, modern society. Thus Tönnies can be said to describe part of the process known today as the globalisation. Tönnies was also one of the first sociologists to claim that the evolution of society is not necessarily going in the right direction, that the social progress is not perfect, and it can even be called a regress as the newer, more evolved societies are obtained only after paying a high cost, resulting in decreasing satisfaction of individuals making up that society. Tönnies' work became the foundation of neoevolutionism. Ferdinand TÃ¶nnies (July 26, 1855, near Oldenswort (Eiderstedt) - April 9, 1936, Kiel, Germany) was a German sociologist. ... Standardisation or standardization (sometimes abbreviated s13n), in the context related to technologies and industries, is the process of establishing a technical standard among competing entities in a market, where this will bring benefits without hurting competition. ... In mathematical logic, in particular as applied to computer science, a unification of two terms is a join (in the lattice sense) with respect to a specialisation order. ... Globalization is a term used to describe the changes in societies and the world economy that are the result of dramatically increased trade and cultural exchange. ... Social progress is defined as a progress of society, which makes this society better. ... Neoevolutionism is a social theory that tried to explain the evolution of societies by drawing on Charles Darwins theory of evolution and discarding some dogmas of the previous social evolutionism. ...

Although not usually counted as a sociocultural evolutionist, Max Weber's theory of tripartite classification of authority can be viewed as an evolutionary theory as well. Weber distinguishes three ideal types of political leadership, domination and authority: charismatic domination (familial and religious), traditional domination (patriarchs, patrimonalism, feudalism) and legal (rational) domination (modern law and state, bureaucracy). He also notes that legal domination is the most advanced, and that societies evolve from having mostly traditional and charismatic authorities to mostly rational and legal ones. This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years or more. ... This image is in the public domain because its copyright has expired in the United States and those countries with a copyright term of life of the author plus 100 years or more. ... Maximilian Weber (April 21, 1864 â€“ June 14, 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Ideal type, also known as pure type, or idealtyp (in the original German), is a typological term invented by sociologist Max Weber (1864-1920). ... The word leadership can refer to: the process of leading the concept of leading those entities that perform one or more acts of leading. ... Domination is a supreme or preeminate control, rule, or governing; plural dominion. ... In politics, authority (Latin auctoritas, used in Roman law as opposed to potestas and imperium) is often used interchangeably with the term power. However, their meanings differ. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Traditional authority (also known as traditional domination) is a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to the tradition. ... Rational-legal authority (also known as rational authority, legal authority, rational domination, legal domination) is a form of leadership in which the authority of an organization or a ruling regime is largely tied to legal rationality, legal legitimacy and bureaucracy. ...

Critique and impact on modern theories

The early 20th century inaugurated a period of systematic critical examination, and rejection of the sweeping generalisations of the unilineal theories of sociocultural evolution. Cultural anthropologists such as Franz Boas, and his students like Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead, typically regarded as the leader of anthropology's rejection of classical social evolutionism, used sophisticated ethnography and more rigorous empirical methods to argue that Spencer, Tylor, and Morgan's theories were speculative and systematically misrepresented ethnographic data. Theories regarding "stages" of evolution were especially criticised as illusions. Additionally, they rejected the distinction between "primitive" and "civilised" (or "modern"), pointing out that so-called primitive contemporary societies have just as much history, and were just as evolved, as so-called civilised societies. They therefore argued that any attempt to use this theory to reconstruct the histories of non-literate (i.e. leaving no historical documents) peoples is entirely speculative and unscientific. They observed that the postulated progression, which typically ended with a stage of civilisation identical to that of modern Europe, is ethnocentric. They also pointed out that the theory assumes that societies are clearly bounded and distinct, when in fact cultural traits and forms often cross social boundaries and diffuse among many different societies (and is thus an important mechanism of change). Boas introduced the culture history approach, which concentrated on fieldwork among native peoples to identify actual cultural and historical processes rather than speculative stages of growth. This "culture history" approach dominated American anthropology for the first half of the 20th century and so influenced anthropology elsewhere that high-level generalisation and "systems building" became far less common than in the past. Cultural anthropology, also called social anthropology or socio-cultural anthropology, forms one of four commonly-recognized fields of anthropology, the holistic study of humanity. ... Franz Boas Franz Boas (July 9, 1858 â€“ December 22, 1942) was one of the pioneers of modern anthropology and is often called the Father of American Anthropology. A German by birth, Boas worked for most of his life in North America. ... Ruth Benedict (née Fulton) (June 6, 1887 - September 17, 1948) was an American anthropologist. ... Margaret Mead Margaret Mead (December 16, 1901 â€“ November 15, 1978) was an American cultural anthropologist. ... Ethnography (from the Greek ethnos = nation and graphein = writing) refers to the qualitative description of human social phenomena, based on fieldwork. ... Ethnocentricity is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of ones own ethnic culture. ... Cultural-history archaeology or simply Culture history is a form of archaeological theory. ...

Later critics observed that this assumption of firmly bounded societies was proposed precisely at the time when European powers were colonising non-Western societies, and was thus self-serving. Many anthropologists and social theorists now consider unilineal cultural and social evolution a Western myth seldom based on solid empirical grounds. Critical theorists argue that notions of social evolution are simply justifications for power by the elites of society. Finally, the devastating World Wars that occurred between 1914 and 1945 crippled Europe's self-confidence. After millions of deaths, genocide, and the destruction of Europe's industrial infrastructure, the idea of progress seemed dubious at best. // The word mythology (Greek: Î¼Ï…Î¸Î¿Î»Î¿Î³Î¯Î±, from Î¼Ï…Î¸Î¿Ï‚ mythos, a story or legend, and Î»Î¿Î³Î¿Ï‚ logos, an account or speech) literally means the (oral) retelling of myths â€“ stories that a particular culture believes to be true and that use supernatural events or characters to explain the nature of the universe and humanity. ... Sociologists usually define power as the ability to impose ones will on others, even if those others resist in some way. ...

Thus modern sociocultural evolutionism rejects most of classical social evolutionism due to various theoretical problems:

Because social evolution was posited as a scientific theory, it was often used to support unjust and often racist social practices—particularly colonialism, slavery, and the unequal economic conditions present within industrialised Europe. Social Darwinism is especially criticised, as it led to some philosophies used by the Nazis. Ethnocentrism (Greek ethnos nation + -centrism) is a set of beliefs or practices based on the view that ones own group is the center of everything. ... For alternative meanings for The West in the United States, see the U.S. West and American West. ... For other uses, see Civilization (disambiguation). ... In archaeology, culture refers to either of two separate but allied concepts: A material culture comprises physical objects from the past, the study of which is the basis of the discipline. ... A speculative phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains, bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. ... Progress can refer to: The idea of a process in which societies or individuals become better or more modern (technologically and/or socially). ... Herbert Spencer coined the phrase survival of the fittest Survival of the fittest is a phrase which is a shorthand for a concept relating to competition for survival or predominance. ... This article is about biological evolution. ... In nutrition, the diet is the sum of the food consumed by an organism. ... The word ecology is often used in common parlance as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. ... 1. ... It has been suggested that Corporate colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... It has been suggested that Chattel slavery be merged into this article or section. ... Europe is conventionally considered one of the seven continents of Earth which, in this case, is more a cultural and political distinction than a physiographic one, leading to various perspectives about Europes borders. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Nazi party used a right-facing swastika as their symbol and the red and black colors were said to represent Blut und Boden (blood and soil). ...

Modern theories

When the critique of classical social evolutionism became widely accepted, modern anthropological and sociological approaches changed to reflect their responses to the critique of their predecessor. Modern theories are careful to avoid unsourced, ethnocentric speculation, comparisons, or value judgements; more or less regarding individual societies as existing within their own historical contexts. These conditions provided the context for new theories such as cultural relativism and multilineal evolution. Multilineal evolution is a 20th century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. ... Download high resolution version (2400x1200, 534 KB)Composite image of the Earth at night, created by NASA and NOAA. NASA Description: This image of Earth’s city lights was created with data from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Operational Linescan System (OLS). ... Download high resolution version (2400x1200, 534 KB)Composite image of the Earth at night, created by NASA and NOAA. NASA Description: This image of Earth’s city lights was created with data from the Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Operational Linescan System (OLS). ... Earth (often referred to as The Earth) is the third planet in the solar system in terms of distance from the Sun, and the fifth in order of size. ... This article or section is missing references or citation of sources. ... The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is a scientific agency of the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. ... Cultural relativism is the principle that an individual humans beliefs and activities make sense in terms of his or her own culture. ... Multilineal evolution is a 20th century social theory about the evolution of societies and cultures. ...

By the 1940s cultural anthropologists such as Leslie White and Julian Steward sought to revive an evolutionary model on a more scientific basis, and succeeded in establishing an approach known as the neoevolutionism. White rejected the opposition between "primitive" and "modern" societies but did argue that societies could be distinguished based on the amount of energy they harnessed, and that increased energy allowed for greater social differentiation (White's law). Steward on the other hand rejected the 19th-century notion of progress, and instead called attention to the Darwinian notion of "adaptation", arguing that all societies had to adapt to their environment in some way. Leslie Alvin White ([19 January [1900]], Salida Colorado -- 31 March 1975) was an anthropologist known for his advocacy of theories of cultural evolution and his role in creating the department of anthropology at the University of Michigan Ann Arbor. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... Neoevolutionism is a social theory that tried to explain the evolution of societies by drawing on Charles Darwins theory of evolution and discarding some dogmas of the previous social evolutionism. ... Whites Law states that, other factors remaining constant, culture evolves as the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year is increased, or as the efficiency of the instrumental means of putting the energy to work is increased. ...

The anthropologists Marshall Sahlins and Elman Service wrote a book, Evolution and Culture, in which they attempted to synthesise White's and Steward's approaches^[4]. Other anthropologists, building on or responding to work by White and Steward, developed theories of cultural ecology and ecological anthropology. The most prominent examples are Peter Vayda and Roy Rappaport. By the late 1950s, students of Steward such as Eric Wolf and Sidney Mintz turned away from cultural ecology to Marxism, World Systems Theory, Dependency theory and Marvin Harris's Cultural materialism. Marshall Sahlins (born 1930) is a prominent American anthropologist. ... Elman Service was a cultural anthropologist. ... Andrew P. Vayda Progressive Contextualization was pioneered and developed by Profesor Andrew P. Vayda and a number of his research team in 1979-1984 to understand cause of damage and destruction of forest and land during the New Order Regime in Indonisia as well as practical ethnography. ... Roy A. Rappaport (1926â€“1997) was an anthropologist known for his contributions to the anthropological study of ritual and to ecological anthropology. ... Eric Wolf (1923-1999) was an anthropologist best known for his studies of Latin America and his advocacy of Marxist perspectives within anthropology. ... Sidney Wilfred Mintz (born November 16, 1922 in Dover, New Jersey) is an anthropologist best known for his studies of Latin America and the Caribbean. ... Marxism is the philosophy, social theory and political practice based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German socialist philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary. ... Unlike former sociological theories, which presented general models of social change with particular focus at the societal level, world-systems theory (or world system perspective) explores the role and relationships between societies (and the subsequent changes produced by them). ... International Relations Theory Realism Liberalism Idealism Neoconservatism Institutionalism Functionalism Marxism Critical theory Isolationism Dependency theory is the body of social science theories by various intellectuals, both from the Third World and the First World, that create a worldview which suggests that the wealthy nations of the world need a peripheral... Marvin Harris Marvin Harris (August 18, 1927 â€“ October 25, 2001) was an American anthropologist and highly influential in the development of cultural materialism. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Today most anthropologists continue to reject 19th-century notions of progress and the three original assumptions of unilineal evolution. Following Steward, they take seriously the relationship between a culture and its environment in attempts to explain different aspects of a culture. But most modern cultural anthropologists have adopted a general systems approach, examining cultures as emergent systems and argue that one must consider the whole social environment, which includes political and economic relations among cultures. There are still others who continue to reject the entirety of the evolutionary thinking and look instead at historical contingencies, contacts with other cultures, and the operation of cultural symbol systems. As a result, the simplistic notion of "cultural evolution" has grown less useful and given way to an entire series of more nuanced approaches to the relationship of culture and environment. In the area of development studies, authors such as Amartya Sen have developed an understanding of "development" and 'human flourishing' that also question more simplistic notions of progress, while retaining much of their original inspiration. Amartya Sen Amartya Kumar Sen CH (Hon) (born November 3, 1933 in India), is an economist and a winner of the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences (sometimes referred to informally as the Nobel Prize for Economics) for his work on famine, human development theory, welfare economics, the underlying...

Neoevolutionism

Neoevolutionism is the first theory of the series of modern multilineal evolution theories. It emerged in 1930s and extensively developed in the period following the Second World War and was incorporated into both anthropology and sociology in the 1960s. It bases its theories on the empirical evidences from areas of archaeology, palaeontology and historiography and tries to eliminate any references to system of values, be it moral or cultural, instead trying to remain objective and simply descriptive. Neoevolutionism is a social theory that tried to explain the evolution of societies by drawing on Charles Darwins theory of evolution and discarding some dogmas of the previous social evolutionism. ... Mushroom cloud from the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki rising 18 km into the air. ... Anthropology (from the Greek word Î¬Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... Archaeology, archeology, or archÃ¦ology (from the Greek words Î±ÏÏ‡Î±Î¯Î¿Ï‚ = ancient and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... A paleontologist carefully chips rock from a column of dinosaur vertebrae. ... Historiography is the study of the way history is and has been written. ...

While 19th-century evolutionism explained how culture develops by giving general principles of its evolutionary process, it was dismissed by the Historical Particularists as unscientific in the early 20th century. It was the neoevolutionary thinkers who brought back evolutionary thought and developed it to be acceptable to contemporary anthropology.

The neoevolutionism discards many ideas of classical social evolutionism, namely that of social progress, so dominant in previous sociology evolution-related theories. Then neoevolutionism discards the determinism argument and introduces probability, arguing that accidents and free will have much impact on the process of social evolution. It also supports the counterfactual history—asking "what if" and considering different possible path that social evolution may (or might have) taken, and thus allows for the fact that various cultures may develop in different ways, some skipping entire stages others have passed through. The neoevolutionism stresses the importance of empirical evidence. While 19th-century evolutionism used value judgment and assumptions for interpreting data, neoevolutionism relied on measurable information for analysing the process of sociocultural evolution. Social progress is defined as a progress of society, which makes this society better. ... Determinism is the philosophical proposition that every event, including human cognition and action, is causally determined by an unbroken chain of prior occurrences. ... The word probability derives from the Latin probare (to prove, or to test). ... Virtual history, also referred to as counterfactual history, is a form of history which seeks to explore history and historical processes from the point of view of extrapolating a position in which certain key historical events did not happen or had an outcome which was different to that which did... Empirical is an adjective often used in conjunction with science, both the natural and social sciences, which means an observation or experiment based upon experience that is capable of being verified or disproved. ...

Leslie White, author of The Evolution of Culture: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome (1959), attempted to create a theory explaining the entire history of humanity. The most important factor in his theory is technology: Social systems are determined by technological systems, wrote White in his book ^[5], echoing the earlier theory of Lewis Henry Morgan. As measure of society advancement, he proposed the measure of a society's energy consumption. He differentiates between five stages of human development. In first, people use energy of their own muscles. In second, they use energy of domesticated animals. In third, they use the energy of plants (so White refers to agricultural revolution here). In fourth, they learn to use the energy of natural resources: coal, oil, gas. In fifth, they harness the nuclear energy. White introduced a formulae, P=E*T, where E is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of efficiency of technical factors utilising the energy. This theory is similar to Russian astronomer Nikolai Kardashev's later theory of the Kardashev scale. Leslie Alvin White ([19 January [1900]], Salida Colorado -- 31 March 1975) was an anthropologist known for his advocacy of theories of cultural evolution and his role in creating the department of anthropology at the University of Michigan Ann Arbor. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a level of technological mastery sufficient to leave the surface of the planet for the first time and explore space. ... Social structure (also referred to as a social system) is a system in which people forming the society are organized by a patterns of prelationships. ... Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) was an American lawyer and amateur scholar best known for his work on cultural evolution and Native Americans. ... Energy consumption is a measure of the rate of energy use such as fuels or electricity. ... Domesticated animals, plants, and other organisms are those whose collective behavior, life cycle, or physiology has been altered as a result of their breeding and living conditions being under human control for multiple generations. ... In the Earths history there have been a number of agricultural revolutions. ... [[fsdfsdfsthe fusing saf dfdsfsdfsdfdsfdiscovered. ... Nikolai Kardashev Nikolai Semenovich Kardashev (ÐÐ¸ÐºÐ¾Ð»Ð°ÌÐ¹ Ð¡ÐµÐ¼Ñ‘Ð½Ð¾Ð²Ð¸Ñ‡ ÐšÐ°Ñ€Ð´Ð°ÑˆÑ‘Ð²) (born April 25, 1932) is a Russian astrophysicist, and is the deputy director of the Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Moscow. ... Kardashev scale projections ranging from 1900 to 2100. ...

Julian Steward, author of Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution (1955, reprinted 1979), created the theory of "multilinear" evolution which examined the way in which societies adapted to their environment. This approach was more nuanced than White's theory of "unilinear evolution." Steward on the other hand rejected the 19th-century notion of progress, and instead called attention to the Darwinian notion of "adaptation", arguing that all societies had to adapt to their environment in some way. He argued that different adaptations could be studied through the examination of the specific resources a society exploited, the technology the society relied on to exploit these resources, and the organisation of human labour. He further argued that different environments and technologies would require different kinds of adaptations, and that as the resource base or technology changed, so too would a culture. In other words, cultures do not change according to some inner logic, but rather in terms of a changing relationship with a changing environment. Cultures would therefore not pass through the same stages in the same order as they changed—rather, they would change in varying ways and directions. He called his theory "multilineal evolution". He questioned the possibility of creation of a social theory encompassing the entire evolution of humanity; however, he argued that anthropologists are not limited to description of specific existing cultures. He believed it is possible to create theories analysing typical common culture, representative of specific eras or regions. As the decisive factors determining the development of given culture he pointed to technology and economics, and noted there are secondary factors, like political system, ideologies and religion. All those factors push the evolution of given society in several directions at the same time; thus, this is the multilinearity of his theory of evolution. This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ...

Marshall Sahlins, author of Evolution and Culture (1960), divided the evolution of societies into 'general' and 'specific'. General evolution is the tendency of cultural and social systems to increase in complexity, organisation and adaptiveness to environment. However, as the various cultures are not isolated, there is interaction and a diffusion of their qualities (like technological inventions). This leads cultures to develop in different ways (specific evolution), as various elements are introduced to them in different combinations and on different stages of evolution. Marshall Sahlins (born 1930) is a prominent American anthropologist. ... Diffusionism is the theory about the development of cultures and technologies, particularly in ancient history. ... In general terms, an invention is an object, process or technique which displays an element of novelty. ...

Gerhard Lenski in his Power and Prestige (1966) and Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology (1974) he expands on the works of Leslie White and Lewis Henry Morgan. He views the technological progress as the most basic factor in the evolution of societies and cultures. Unlike White, who defined technology as the ability to create and utilise energy, Lenski focuses on information—its amount and uses. The more information and knowledge (especially allowing the shaping of natural environment) a given society has, the more advanced it is. He distinguished four stages of human development, based on the advances in the history of communication. In the first stage, information is passed by genes. In the second, when humans gain sentience, they can learn and pass information through by experience. In the third, the humans start using signs and develop logic. In the fourth, they can create symbols, develop language and writing. Advancements in the technology of communication translates into advancements in the economic system and political system, distribution of goods, social inequality and other spheres of social life. He also differentiates societies based on their level of technology, communication and economy: (1) hunters and gatherers, (2) simple agricultural, (3) advanced agricultural, (4) industrial (5) special (like fishing societies). Gerhard Emmanuel Lenski (born August 13, 1924) is a sociologist known for contributions to the sociology of religion, social inequality, and ecological-evolutionary social theory (which is related to cultural evolution). ... Leslie Alvin White ([19 January [1900]], Salida Colorado -- 31 March 1975) was an anthropologist known for his advocacy of theories of cultural evolution and his role in creating the department of anthropology at the University of Michigan Ann Arbor. ... Lewis Henry Morgan (1818-1881) was an American lawyer and amateur scholar best known for his work on cultural evolution and Native Americans. ... Origins of theory According to Czech philosopher Radovan Richta, in his 1967 publication “Man and Technology in the Revolution of Our Day”, technology (which he defines as “a material entity created by the application of mental and physical effort to nature in order to achieve some value”) evolves in three... Information as a concept bears a diversity of meanings, from everyday usage to technical settings. ... The history of communication dates back to the earliest signs of life. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... Sentience is a capacity for basic consciousnessâ€”the ability to feel or perceive, not necessarily including the faculty of self-awareness. ... Learned redirects here. ... This article is about the Signs Signs, see Signs (disambiguation). ... Logic, from Classical Greek Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ (logos), originally meaning the word, or what is spoken, (but coming to mean thought or reason) is most often said to be the study of criteria for the evaluation of arguments, although the exact definition of logic is a matter of controversy among philosophers. ... See also Creative writing. ... {after reading this page, you shall proceed to lick your wifes overgrown pubic hair An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Social inequality refers to disparities in the distribution of material wealth in a society. ...

Talcott Parsons, author of Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives (1966) and The System of Modern Societies (1971) divided evolution into four subprocesses: (1) division, which creates functional subsystems from the main system; (2) adaptation, where those systems evolve into more efficient versions; (3) inclusion of elements previously excluded from the given systems; and (4) generalisation of values, increasing the legitimisation of the ever more complex system. He shows those processes on 3 stages of evolution: (1) primitive, (2) archaic and (3) modern. Archaic societies have the knowledge of writing, while modern have the knowledge of law. Parsons viewed the Western civilisation as the pinnacle of modern societies, and out of all western cultures he declared United States as the most dynamic developed. Talcott Parsons (December 13, 1902-May 8, 1979) was the best-known sociologist in the United States, and one of the best-known in the world for many years. ... See also Creative writing. ... This article or section is missing references or citation of sources. ... For alternative meanings for The West in the United States, see the U.S. West and American West. ...

Sociobiology

Sociobiology departs perhaps the furthest from the classical social evolutionism. It was introduced by Edward Wilson in his 1975 book Sociobiology: The New Synthesis and followed his adaptation of biological theory neo-Darwinism to the field of social sciences. Wilson pioneered the attempt to explain the evolutionary mechanics behind social behaviours such as altruism, aggression, and nurturance. In doing so, Wilson sparked one of the greatest scientific controversies of the 20th century. Sociobiology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines that attempts to explain behaviour in all species by considering the evolutionary advantages of social behaviours. ... Sociobiology is a synthesis of scientific disciplines that attempts to explain behaviour in all species by considering the evolutionary advantages of social behaviours. ... There have been at least two notable people called Edward Wilson. ... Sociobiology: The New Synthesis was a 1975 book by E. O. Wilson. ... The modern evolutionary synthesis (often referred to simply as the modern synthesis), neo-Darwinian synthesis or neo-Darwinism, brings together Charles Darwins theory of the evolution of species by natural selection with Gregor Mendels theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance. ... Altruism is the practice of placing others before oneself. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards and make it easier to understand, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Look up Controversy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary For other uses, see Controversy (disambiguation). ...

Sociobiologists have argued for a dual inheritance theory, which posits that humans are products of both biological evolution and sociocultural evolution, each subject to their own selective mechanisms and forms of transmission (i.e. in the case of biology, genes, and for culture possibly memes). This approach focuses on both the mechanisms of cultural transmission and the selective pressures that influence cultural change. This version of sociocultural evolution shares little in common with the stadial evolutionary models of the early and mid-20th century. This approach has been embraced by many psychologists and some cultural anthropologists, but very few physical anthropologists. Dual inheritance theory, (or DIT), in sharp contrast to the notion that culture overrides biology, posits that humans are products of the interaction between biological evolution and cultural evolution. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... Meme, (rhymes with cream and comes from Greek root with the meaning of memory and its derivative mimeme), is the term given to a unit of information that replicates from brains and inanimate stores of information, such as books and computers, to other brains or stores of information. ... Psychology (Gk: psyche, soul or mind + logos, speech) is an academic and applied field involving the study of the mind, brain, and behavior, both human and nonhuman. ... Cultural anthropology, also called social anthropology or socio-cultural anthropology, forms one of four commonly-recognized fields of anthropology, the holistic study of humanity. ... Physical anthropology, often called biological anthropology, studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. ...

Neo-Darwinism, also known as the modern evolutionary synthesis, generally denotes the combination of Charles Darwin's theory of the evolution of species by natural selection, Gregor Mendel's theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and mathematical population genetics. Essentially, the modern synthesis (or neo-Darwinism) introduced the connection between two important discoveries; the units of evolution (genes) with the mechanism of evolution (selection). The modern evolutionary synthesis (often referred to simply as the modern synthesis), neo-Darwinian synthesis or neo-Darwinism, brings together Charles Darwins theory of the evolution of species by natural selection with Gregor Mendels theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance. ... In his lifetime Charles Darwin gained international fame as an influential scientist examining controversial topics: portrait by Julia Margaret Cameron. ... A speculative phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains, bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. ... In biology, a species is the basic unit of biodiversity. ... Natural selection is the process by which individual organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. ... Gregor Johann Mendel Gregor Johann Mendel (July 20[1], 1822 â€“ January 6, 1884) was an Augustinian abbot who is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. ... Genetics (from the Greek genno Î³ÎµÎ½Î½ÏŽ= give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. ... Population genetics is the study of the distribution of and change in allele frequencies under the influence of the four evolutionary forces: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and migration. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... Natural selection is the process by which individual organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. ...

Due to its close reliance on biology, sociobiology is often considered a branch of the biology and sociology disciplines, although it uses techniques from a plethora of sciences, including ethology, evolution, zoology, archaeology, population genetics, and many others. Within the study of human societies, sociobiology is closely related to the fields of human ecology and evolutionary psychology. Ethology is the scientific study of animal behavior considered as a branch of zoology. ... A speculative phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains, bacteria, archaea and eukaryotes. ... Zoology (Greek zoon = animal and logos = word) is the biological discipline which involves the study of animals. ... Archaeology, archeology, or archÃ¦ology (from the Greek words Î±ÏÏ‡Î±Î¯Î¿Ï‚ = ancient and Î»ÏŒÎ³Î¿Ï‚ = word/speech/discourse) is the study of human cultures through the recovery, documentation and analysis of material remains and environmental data, including architecture, artefacts, biofacts, human remains, and landscapes. ... Population genetics is the study of the distribution of and change in allele frequencies under the influence of the four evolutionary forces: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and migration. ... A society is a group of people living or working together. ... Human ecology is an academic discipline that deals with the relationship between humans and their (natural) environment. ... Evolutionary psychology (abbreviated ev-psych or EP) is the claim that many mental capacities and faculties can be explained by considering them to be adaptations in an evolutionary biological sense, as traits or capacities whose natures can be explained as a product of natural selection. ...

Sociobiology has remained highly controversial as it contends genes play a role in human behaviour, although sociobiologists describe this role as a very complex and often unpredictable interaction between nature and nurture. The most notable critics of the view that genes play a direct role in human behaviour have been Franz Boas, Richard Lewontin and Stephen Jay Gould. This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... Franz Boas Franz Boas (July 9, 1858 â€“ December 22, 1942) was one of the pioneers of modern anthropology and is often called the Father of American Anthropology. A German by birth, Boas worked for most of his life in North America. ... Richard Lewontin Richard Charles Dick Lewontin (born March 29, 1929) is an American evolutionary biologist, geneticist and social commentator. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

Theory of modernisation

Theories of modernisation have been developed and popularised in 1950s and 1960s and is closely related to the dependency theory and development theory. It combines the previous theories of sociocultural evolution with practical experiences and empirical research, especially those from the era of decolonisation. The theory states that: Modernization theory is a socio-economic theory, sometimes known as (or as being encompassed within) developmet theory, which highlights the positive role played by the developed world in modernizing and facilitating sustainable development in underdeveloped nations, often contrasted with dependency theory. ... Modernization is the process of changing the conditions of a society, an organisation or another group of people in ways that change the privileges of that group according to modern technology or modern knowledge. ... International Relations Theory Realism Liberalism Idealism Neoconservatism Institutionalism Functionalism Marxism Critical theory Isolationism Dependency theory is the body of social science theories by various intellectuals, both from the Third World and the First World, that create a worldview which suggests that the wealthy nations of the world need a peripheral... development theory This page is a candidate for speedy deletion. ... Decolonization generally refers to a movement following the Second World War in which the various European colonies of the world were granted independence. ...

Developing from classical social evolutionism theories, theory of modernisation stresses the modernisation factor: many societies are simply trying (or need to) emulate the most successful societies and cultures. It also states that it is possible to do so, thus supporting the concepts of social engineering and that the developed countries can and should help those less developed, directly or indirectly. For the Jamaican reggae band, see Third World (band). ... Social progress is defined as a progress of society, which makes this society better. ... Social engineering has several meanings: Social engineering (political science) Social engineering (computer security) This is a disambiguation page â€” a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

Among the scientists who contributed much to this theory are Walt Rostow, who in his The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto (1960) concentrates on the economic system side of the modernisation, trying to show factors needed for a country to reach the path to modernisation in his Rostovian take-off model. David Apter concentrated on the political system and history of democracy, researching the connection between democracy, good governance and efficiency and modernisation. David McClelland (The Achieving Society, 1967) approached this subject from the psychological perspective , with his motivations theory, arguing that modernisation cannot happen until given society values innovation, success and free enterprise. Alex Inkeles (Becoming Modern, 1974) similarly creates a model of modern personality, which needs to be independent, active, interested in public policies and cultural matters, open for new experiences, rational and being able to create long-term plans for the future. Some works of Jürgen Habermas are also connected with this subfield. Walt Whitman Rostow (also known as Walt Rostow or W.W. Rostow) (October 7, 1916 - February 13, 2003) was an American economist and political thinker prominent for his staunch opposition to Communism and belief in the efficacy of capitalism and free enterprise. ... {after reading this page, you shall proceed to lick your wifes overgrown pubic hair An economic system is a mechanism (social institution) which deals with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in a particular society. ... The Rostovian take-off model is one of the major historical models of economic growth. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... The history of democracy traces back from its origins in prehistoric times to its re-emergence and rise from the 17th century to the present day. ... David McClelland (1917-1998). ... Psychology (Gk: psyche, soul or mind + logos, speech) is an academic and applied field involving the study of the mind, brain, and behavior, both human and nonhuman. ... This article or section contains information that has not been verified and thus might not be reliable. ... JÃ¼rgen Habermas JÃ¼rgen Habermas (born June 18, 1929 in DÃ¼sseldorf) is a German philosopher, political scientist and sociologist in the tradition of critical theory, best known for his concept of the public sphere. ...

Theory of modernisation has been subject to some criticism similar to that levied on classical social evolutionism, especially for being too ethnocentric, one-sided and focused on the Western world and culture. Ethnocentrism (Greek ethnos nation + -centrism) is a set of beliefs or practices based on the view that ones own group is the center of everything. ...

Theory of postindustrial society

The very concept of evolution has made some scientists try to analyse various trends and predict the future development of societies. have created the theories of postindustrial societies, arguing that the current era of industrial society is coming to an end, and services and information are becoming more important than industry and goods. A post-industrial society is a proposed name for an economy that has undergone a specific series of changes in structure after a process of industrialization. ... A post-industrial society is a proposed name for an economy that has undergone a specific series of changes in structure after a process of industrialization. ... In sociology, industrial society refers to a society with a modern societal structure. ... In economics and marketing, a service is the non-material equivalent of a good. ... A good in economics is any physical object (natural or man-made) or service that, upon consumption, increases utility, and therefore can be sold at a price in a market. ...

In 1974 Daniel Bell, author of The Coming of Post-Industrial Society, introduced the concept of postindustrial society. Like many more classical evolutionists, he divided the history of humanity into three eras: pre-industrial, industrial and postindustrial. He predicted that by the end of the 20th century, United States, Japan and Western Europe would reach the postindustrial stage. This would be visible by: 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday (the link is to a full 1974 calendar). ... Daniel Bell Daniel Bell (born 10 May 1919) is a sociologist and professor emeritus at Harvard University. ... A post-industrial society is a proposed name for an economy that has undergone a specific series of changes in structure after a process of industrialization. ...

From the 1970s many other sociologist and anthropologists, like Alvin Toffler (Future Shock, 1970), and John Naisbitt (Megatrends 2000: The New Directions for the 1990's, 1982) have followed in Bell's footsteps and created similar theories. John Naisbitt introduced the concept of megatrends: a powerful, global trends that are changing societies on the worldwide scale. Among those megatrends he mentions the process of globalisation. Another important megatrend was the increase in performance of computers and the development of the World Wide Web. Marshall McLuhan introduced the concept of global village (The Gutenberg Galaxy, 1962), and this term was soon adapted by the researchers of globalisation and the Internet. Naisbitt and many other proponents of the theory of postindustrial societies argues that those megatrends lead to decentralisation, weakening of the central government, increasing importance of local initiatives and direct democracy, changes in the hierarchy of the traditional social classes, development of new social movements and increased powers of consumers and number of choices available to them (Toffler even used the term "overchoice"). The tertiary sector of industry, also called the service sector or the service industry, is one of the three main industrial categories of a developed economy, the others being the secondary industry (manufacturing and primary goods production such as agriculture), and primary industry (extraction such as mining and fishing). ... The secondary sector of industry is the manufacturing sector of industry. ... The primary sector of industry generally involves the conversion of natural resources into primary products. ... A Watt steam engine in Madrid. ... [[[[[[Information technology]]]]]] (IT) or Information and communication(s) technology (ICT) (also Infocomm, esp. ... Technocracy can refer to: A bureaucratic technocracy, or a government run by the highly educated. ... Pragmatism is a collection of many different ways of thinking. ... Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the science (study) of morality. In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is good or right. ... An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. ... Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ... Bourgeois at the end of the thirteenth century. ... Alvin Toffler Alvin Toffler (born October 3, 1928) is an American writer and futurist, known for his works discussing the digital revolution, communications revolution, corporate revolution and technological singularity. ... Future Shock is a controversial book written by the sociologist and futurologist Alvin Toffler in 1970. ... John Naisbitt (* 1929) is an American writer in the area of futures studies. ... Globalization is a term used to describe the changes in societies and the world economy that are the result of dramatically increased trade and cultural exchange. ... The World Wide Web (WWW or simply the Web) is a global information space which people can read-from and write-to via a large number of different Internet-connected devices. ... Herbert Marshall McLuhan (July 21, 1911 â€“ December 31, 1980) was a Canadian educator, philosopher, and scholar, professor of English literature, literary critic, and communications theorist, who is one of the founders of the study of media ecology and is today an honorary guru among technophiles. ... Global village is a term, coined by Marshall McLuhan in his book The Gutenberg Galaxy, describing how electronic mass media collapse space and time barriers in human communication, enabling people to interact and live on a global scale. ... Decentralisation (American: decentralization) is any of various means of more widely distributing decision-making to bring it closer to the point of service or action. ... Central government or the national government (or, in federal states, the federal government) is the government at the level of the nation state. ... Direct democracy, classically termed pure democracy[1], comprises a form of democracy and theory of civics wherein sovereignty is lodged in the assembly of all citizens. ... American Civil Rights Movement is one of the most famous social movements of the 20th century. ...

Some of the more extreme visions of the postindustrial society are those related to the theory of the technological singularity. This theory refers to a predicted point or period in the development of a civilisation at which due to the acceleration of technological progress, the societal, scientific and economic change is so rapid that nothing beyond that time can be reliably comprehended, understood or predicted by the pre-Singularity humans. Such a singularity was first discussed in the 1950s, and vastly popularised in the 1980s by Vernor Vinge. Nonetheless, this extreme view is treated with much scepticism by many more conservative social scientists. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1177x904, 160 KB) Coutesy of Ray Kurzweil and Kurzweil Technologies, Inc. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1177x904, 160 KB) Coutesy of Ray Kurzweil and Kurzweil Technologies, Inc. ... Logarithms to various bases: is to base e, is to base 10, and is to base 1. ... It has been suggested that half-life be merged into this article or section. ... When plotted on a logarithmic graph, 15 separate lists of paradigm shifts for key events in human history show an exponential trend. ... When plotted on a logarithmic graph, 15 separate lists of paradigm shifts for key events in human history show an exponential trend. ... A prediction or forecast is a statement or claim that a particular event will occur in the future. ... Origins of theory According to Czech philosopher Radovan Richta, in his 1967 publication “Man and Technology in the Revolution of Our Day”, technology (which he defines as “a material entity created by the application of mental and physical effort to nature in order to achieve some value”) evolves in three... Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are biologically classified as bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin for wise man or thinking man) under the family Hominidae (the great apes). ... Vernor Steffen Vinge (IPA: ) (born February 10, 1944) is a mathematician, computer scientist and science fiction author who is best known for his Hugo award-winning novels A Fire Upon the Deep and A Deepness in the Sky, as well as for his 1993 essay The Technological Singularity, in which...

Critics of the postindustrial society theory point out that it is very vague and as any prediction, there is no guarantee that any of the trends visible today will in fact exist in the future or develop in the directions predicted by contemporary researchers. However, no serious sociologist would argue it is possible to predict the future, but only that such theories allow us to gain a better understanding of the changes taking place in the modern world.

Contemporary moral and political debates over sociocultural evolution

The Cold War period was marked by rivalry between two superpowers, both of which considered The Cold War (Russian: Ð¥Ð¾Ð»Ð¾Ð´Ð½Ð°Ñ Ð²Ð¾Ð¹Ð½Ð° , Kholodna-ya voina) was the protracted geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle that emerged after World War II between the global superpowers of the Soviet Union and the United States, supported by their alliance partners. ...

There is, however, a tradition in European social theory from Rousseau to Max Weber that argues that this progression coincides with a loss of human freedom and dignity. At the height of the Cold War, this tradition merged with an interest in ecology to influence an activist culture in the 1960s. This movement produced a variety of political and philosophical programs which emphasised the importance of bringing society and the environment into harmony. Current political theories of the new tribalists consciously mimic ecology and the life-ways of indigenous peoples, augmenting them with modern sciences. Ecoregional Democracy attempts to confine the "shifting groups", or tribes, within "more or less clear boundaries" that a society inherits from the surrounding ecology, to the borders of a naturally occurring ecoregion. Progress can proceed by competition between but not within tribes, and it is limited by ecological borders or by Natural Capitalism incentives which attempt to mimic the pressure of natural selection on a human society by forcing it to adapt consciously to scarce energy or materials. Gaians argue that societies evolve deterministically to play a role in the ecology of their biosphere, or else die off as failures due to competition from more efficient societies exploiting nature's leverage. Social theory refers to the use of abstract and often complex theoretical frameworks to explain and analyze social patterns and large-scale social structures. ... Jean-Jacques Rousseau (June 28, 1712 â€“ July 2, 1778) was a Franco-Swiss philosopher of the Enlightenment whose political ideas influenced the French Revolution, the development of socialist theory, and the growth of nationalism. ... Maximilian Weber (April 21, 1864 â€“ June 14, 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration. ... The word ecology is often used in common parlance as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. ... New tribalists are radical adherents of Neo-Tribalism. ... The term has no universal, standard or fixed definition. ... Bioregional democracy (or the Bioregional State) is a set of Electoral Reforms designed to force the political process in a democracy to better represent body and environment concerns, e. ... Viewed historically or developmentally, a tribe consists of a social formation existing before the development of, or outside of, states. ... The word ecology is often used in common parlance as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. ... An ecoregion is a relatively large area of land or water that contains a geographically distinct assemblage of natural communities. ... Natural capitalism is a set of trends and economic reforms to reward energy and material efficiency - and remove professional standards and accounting conventions that prevent such efficiencies. ... Natural selection is the process by which individual organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and reproduce. ... A Gaian is a radical Green who views the ecology of the Earths biosphere not only as the basis of human moral examples, but of all cognition and even sentience. ... The biosphere is the part of a planets outer shell â€” including air, land, surface rocks and water â€” within which life occurs, and which biotic processes in turn alter or transform. ...

Thus, some have appealed to theories of sociocultural evolution to assert that optimising the ecology and the social harmony of closely knit groups is more desirable or necessary than the progression to "civilisation." A 2002 poll of experts on Nearctic and Neotropic indigenous peoples (reported in Harper's magazine) revealed that all of them would have preferred to be a typical New World person in the year 1491, prior to any European contact, rather than a typical European of that time. The Nearctic is one of the eight terrestrial ecozones dividing the Earths land surface. ... The Neotropic ecozone is a terrestrial ecoregion which includes South America, Central America, and the Caribbean. ... The term has no universal, standard or fixed definition. ...

This approach has been criticised by pointing out that there are a number of historical examples of indigenous peoples doing severe environmental damage (such as the deforestation of Easter Island and the extinction of mammoths in North America) and that proponents of the goal have been trapped by the European stereotype of the noble savage. Deforestation is the conversion of forested areas to non-forested. ... Location of Easter Island. ... Species Mammuthus columbi Columbian mammoth Mammuthus exilis Pygmy mammoth Mammuthus jeffersonii Jeffersonian mammoth Mammuthus trogontheri Steppe mammoth Mammuthus meridionalis Mammuthus primigenius Woolly mammoth Mammuthus lamarmorae Sardinian Dwarf Mammoth A mammoth is any of a number of an extinct genus of elephant, often with long curved tusks and, in northern species... World map showing North America A satellite composite image of North America. ... A section of Benjamin Wests The Death of General Wolfe; Wests depiction of this Native American has been considered an idealization in the tradition of the Noble savage (Fryd, 75) In the 18th century culture of Primitivism the noble savage, uncorrupted by the influences of civilization was considered...

Today, postmodernists question whether the notions of evolution or society have inherent meaning and whether they reveal more about the person doing the description than the thing being described. Observing and observed cultures may lack sufficient cultural similarities (such as a common foundation ontology) to be able to communicate their respective priorities easily. Or, one may impose such a system of belief and judgment upon another, via conquest or colonisation. For instance, observation of very different ideas of mathematics and physics in indigenous peoples led indirectly to ideas such as George Lakoff's "cognitive science of mathematics", which asks if measurement systems themselves can be objective. Postmodernism (sometimes abbreviated pomo) is a term applied to a wide-ranging set of developments in critical theory, philosophy, architecture, art, literature, and culture, which are generally characterized as either emerging from, in reaction to, or superseding, modernism. ... In philosophy of mathematics, a foundation ontology is an ontology in the formal philosophical sense that is deemed to play a role in the foundations of mathematics. ... Conquest may refer to: An invasion Conquest, New York, a town located in Cayuga County, New York Conquest (film), (also called Marie Walewska) is a 1937 film starring Greta Garbo and Charles Boyer Conquest (game), a turn-based game playable via IRC Conquest: Frontier Wars, a real-time strategy computer... Colonisation (or colonization) is the act where life forms move into a distant area where their kind is sparse or not yet existing at all and set up new settlements in the area. ... Euclid, detail from The School of Athens by Raphael. ... Physics is the Science of Nature The word Physics comes from the Greek, Ï†ÏÏƒÎ¹Ï‚ (physis) which means nature (or from its adjective form Ï†Ï…ÏƒÎ¹ÎºÏŒÏ‚ (physikos) meaning natural) The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. ... The term has no universal, standard or fixed definition. ... George P. Lakoff (, born 1941) is a professor of linguistics (in particular, cognitive linguistics) at the University of California, Berkeley, where he has taught since 1972. ... The cognitive science of mathematics is the study of mathematical ideas using the techniques of cognitive science. ...

Virtually all anthropologists and sociologists assume that human beings have natural social tendencies and that particular human social behaviors have non-genetic causes and dynamics (i.e. they are learned in a social environment and through social interaction). Societies exist in both social (i.e. interacting with other societies) and biotic (i.e. interacting with natural resources and constraints) environments, and adapt themselves to these environments. It is thus inevitable that all societies change. Anthropology (from the Greek word Î¬Î½Î¸ÏÏ‰Ï€Î¿Ï‚, human or person) consists of the study of humanity (see genus Homo). ... Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ... In biology, psychology and sociology social behavior is behavior directed towards, or taking place between, members of the same species. ... Genetics (from the Greek genno Î³ÎµÎ½Î½ÏŽ= give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. ... The social environment or social context is a group of identical or similar social positions and social roles. ... Social interaction is a dynamic, changing sequence of social actions between individuals (or groups) who modify their actions and reactions due to the actions by their interaction partner(s). ... The social environment or social context is a group of identical or similar social positions and social roles. ... The eye is an adaptation. ...

Contents

Overview

Classical social evolutionism

Development

Sociocultural evolutionism and the idea of progress

Critique and impact on modern theories

Modern theories

Neoevolutionism

Sociobiology

Theory of modernisation

Theory of postindustrial society

Contemporary moral and political debates over sociocultural evolution

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Herbert Spencer

Contents

Overview GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Classical social evolutionism

Development

Sociocultural evolutionism and the idea of progress

Critique and impact on modern theories

Modern theories

Neoevolutionism

Sociobiology

Theory of modernisation

Theory of postindustrial society

Contemporary moral and political debates over sociocultural evolution

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links

Herbert Spencer

Overview