Cultural imperialism is the practice of promoting, distinguishing, separating, artificially injecting of the culture or language of one nation in another. It is usually the case that the former is a large, economically or militarily powerful nation and the latter is a smaller, less affluent one. Cultural imperialism can take the form of an active, formal policy or a general attitude. The term is usually used in a pejorative sense, usually in conjunction with a call to reject foreign influence. Culture (from the [[Latin)) cultura stemming from colere, meaning to cultivate), generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ...

Empires throughout history have been established using war and physical compulsion (military imperialism). In the long term, populations have tended to be absorbed into the dominant culture, or acquire its attributes indirectly. What exactly constitutes an Empire (from the Latin imperium, denoting military command within the ancient Roman government) is a topic of intense debate within the scholarly community. ... // Cecil Rhodes: Cape-Cairo railway project. ...

Cultural imperialism is a form of cultural influence distinguished from other forms by the use of force, such as military or economic force. Cultural influence is a process that goes on at all times between all cultures that have contact with each other. For instance, African musical traditions influenced African American music, which in turn influenced American popular music — but cultural imperialism has nothing to do with that transmission. Similarly, the rise in the popularity of Yoga (from India) in Western nations has never relied on any kind of force. Similarly, people from poorer or less powerful states, nations and cultures often freely adapt cultural practices and artifacts from more powerful, wealthier societies without any force necessarily being applied. When people freely adopt cultural artifacts and practices of other cultures the use of the pejorative phrase "cultural imperialism" becomes problematic. When force is absent from cultural influence, use of the term "cultural imperialism" can easily become a debating tactic involving latent bigotry, xenophobia and nationalism — emotional responses to cultural influence that are also present to some degree at all times between all cultures that have contact with each other. Look up xenophobia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Eugène Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ...

Cultural Imperialism is also very different from other imperialistic ways, in the sense that no military or economic intervention is needed to be able to influence countries. When this is the case, the user of the term may need to be prepared to justify why this pejorative term is used rather than the more neutral "cultural influence" or even "cultural dominance", or run the risk of using empty rhetoric or worse, malicious demagoguery, rather than making a substantive point.

Early history

One of the first known examples of cultural imperialism was extinction of the Etruscan culture and language caused by the influence of the Roman Empire.^[1] Map showing the extent of the Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

The Greek culture built gyms, theatres and public baths in places that its adherents conquered (such as ancient Judea, where Greek cultural imperialism sparked a popular revolt), with the effect that the populations became immersed in that culture. The spread of the koine (common) Greek language was another large factor in this immersion. The literal meaning of the Greek word koine (κοινή) is common. It is used in several senses: Koiné Greek (Κοινή Ἑλληνική), a Greek dialect that developed from the Attic dialect (of Athens) and became the spoken language of Greece at the time of the Empire of Alexander the Great. ... Greek (, IPA: — Hellenic) has a documented history of 3,500 years, the longest of any single language within the Indo-European family. ...

As exploration of the Americas increased, European nations including England, France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal all raced to claim territory in hopes of generating increased economic wealth for themselves. In these new colonies, the European conquerors imposed their language and culture. Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: God Save the King/Queen Capital London (de facto) Largest city London Official language(s) English (de facto) Unification    - by Athelstan AD 927  Area    - Total 130,395 km² (1st in UK)   50,346 sq mi  Population    - 2006 est. ...

Similarly, policies of Russification were carried out in the Russian Empire throughout the 19th century. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Anthem: God Save the Tsar! Russian Empire in 1914 Capital Saint Petersburg Language(s) Russian Government Monarchy Emperor  - 1721-1725 Peter the Great  - 1894-1917 Nicholas II History  - Established 22 October, 1721  - February Revolution 2 March, 1917 Area  - 1897 22,400,000 km2 8,648,688 sq mi Population  - 1897...

A revealing instance of cultural imperialism is the Prayer Book rebellion of 1549, where the English state sought to suppress non-English languages with the English language Book of Common Prayer^[2] . In replacing Latin with English, and under the guise of suppressing Catholicism, English was effectively imposed as the language of the Church, with the intent of it becoming the language of the people. At the time people in many areas of Cornwall did not speak or understand English. The Prayer Book Rebellion or Western Rebellion occurred in the southwest of England in 1549. ... Events July - Ketts Rebellion Francis Xavier arrives in Japan. ... For the novel by Joan Didion, see A Book of Common Prayer. ... Latin is an ancient Indo-European language originally spoken in Latium, the region immediately surrounding Rome. ... Cornwall (Cornish: Kernow) is a county in South West England, United Kingdom, on the peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar. ...

In the lands conquered by Islamic armies, Arabic language and Arabic culture prevailed. From Morocco all the way to Indonesia, many local languages, religion, architecture, customs, even names were mixed with Arab Islamic traditions. Examples include the incorporation of Arabic calligraphy into the design of the Hagia Sofia mosque in Istanbul upon its conversion from a church. A significant amount of independence was kept for local traditions in many places that maintained daily interactions with non-Islamic lands; economically, politically, and culturally. An example is the continued existence of belly-dancing, which according to the stricter rulings of modesty and propriety in Islamic rulings is a fairly taboo practice, however, it is found all across the middle east. Less cultural tolerance for existing traditions was practiced in lands that were kept more isolated from interactions with the non-Muslim world, such as Afghanistan and Saudia Arabia, where the strictest (to the extent of distortion) practices of Islamic law are shown. Cultural imperialism is also witnessed in Islamic lands gained through the incorporation of the Arabic language into the culture and educational systems. This is understandable considering that the Islamic holy book, the Qur'an, is written in Arabic, and has never changed the slightest bit in content or language ever since the times of the Prophet Muhammad in the seventh century AD. Translations of the Qur'an from Arabic, a metaphorical, tri-literal-root, semetic language, into other languages have shown changes in the nuanced meanings of the words. Thus, wherever Islam spread, the Arabic language needed to fully understand the Holy Qur'an spread too. A prime example of this is seen in Muslim-occupied Spain in the twelfth century where the Arabic language, much more suitable for poetry than the current Latin, spread among the literate youth at a considerable rate.

Cultural dissemination - international development

Though the majority of international service trips and other related voluntary organizations generally advocate the promotion of the socioeconomic advancement of developing nations overseas, little research has been conducted concerning the overall effectiveness of many of these programs. Some believe that ideas associated with cultural imperialism and the active promotion of one’s own language and culture pose positive as well as negative effects for those less affluent nations. A popular organization like the Peace Corps, for example, has been established for over forty-five years and continues to serve almost one hundred and forty impoverished nations worldwide. Although this particular organization endorses the growth of developing nations, two out of the three main goals comprising Peace Corps’ mission statement place a strong emphasis on promoting a better understanding and acceptance of American culture and the United States. Whether intentional or unintentional, researchers have found that local power and gender differences are often overlooked during a community’s participation in international development and funding organizations. Many modes of cultural imperialism have been analyzed but few studies have been conducted to test the effects associated with introducing elements of new culture, including technological advances and religious institutions. Wikibooks has more about this subject: Marketing In economics and marketing, a service is the non-material equivalent of a good. ... A developing country is a country with low average income compared to the world average. ... Culture (from the [[Latin)) cultura stemming from colere, meaning to cultivate), generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ... Peace Corps volunteers usually serve for two years. ... A developing country is a country with low average income compared to the world average. ... Peace Corps volunteers usually serve for two years. ... This article very generally discusses the customs and culture of the United States; for the culture of the United States, see arts and entertainment in the United States. ... Culture (from the [[Latin)) cultura stemming from colere, meaning to cultivate), generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ...

The topic of information technology, in particular, has sparked a controversial debate as to whether technology actually facilitates economic growth and quality of life throughout the world. Arguments have been made that promoting the use of technology in developing nations may ultimately intensify global inequality, though studies have shown that access to information technology has increased economic expansion and decreased rates of child mortality in the developing world. Some studies have concluded that nationally and internationally funded projects with higher levels of participation have much better success rates and aid a broader section of the population. This article does not cite its references or sources. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the Earth for the first time and explore space. ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the Earth for the first time and explore space. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... This page may meet Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ...

Theory and debate

'Cultural imperialism' can refer to either the forced acculturation of a subject population, or to the voluntary embracing of a foreign culture by individuals who do so of their own free will. Since these are two very different referents, the validity of the term has been called into question. The term cultural imperialism is understood differently in particular discourses. E.g. as "media imperialism" or as "discourse of nationality" (Tomlinson, 1991)^[3] Media Imperialism is a critical theory regarding the perceived effects of globalization on the worlds media. ...

Cultural influence can be seen by the "receiving" culture as either a threat to or an enrichment of its cultural identity. It seems therefore useful to distinguish between cultural imperialism as an (active or passive) attitude of superiority, and the position of a culture or group that seeks to complement its own cultural production, considered partly deficient, with imported products or values. Cultural identity is the (feeling of) identity of a group or culture, or of an individual as far as she/he is influenced by her/his belonging to a group or culture. ...

The imported products or services can themselves represent, or be associated with, certain values (such as consumerism). According to one argument, the "receiving" culture does not necessarily perceive this link, but instead absorbs the foreign culture passively through the use of the foreign goods and services. Due to its somewhat concealed, but very potent nature, this hypothetical idea is described by some experts as "banal imperialism." Some believe that the newly globalized economy of the late 20th and early 21st century has facilitated this process through the use of new information technology. This kind of cultural imperialism is derived from what is called "soft power." Consumerism is a term used to describe the effects of equating personal happiness with purchasing material possessions and consumption. ... Culture (from the [[Latin)) cultura stemming from colere, meaning to cultivate), generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ... Soft power is a term used in international relations theory to describe the ability of a political body, such as a state, to indirectly influence the behavior or interests of other political bodies through cultural or ideological means. ...

Cultural diversity

One of the reasons often given for opposing any form of 'cultural imperialism,' voluntary or otherwise, is the preservation of cultural diversity, a goal seen by some as analogous to the preservation of ecological diversity. Proponents of this idea argue either that such diversity is valuable in itself, or instrumentally valuable because it makes available more ways of solving problems and responding to catastrophes, natural or otherwise. Cultural diversity is the variety of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in the world as a whole. ... Rainforests are among the most biodiverse ecosystems on earth Biodiversity or biological diversity is the variation of taxonomic life forms within a given ecosystem, biome or for the entire Earth. ...

Opponents of this idea deny the validity of the analogy to biodiversity, and/or the validity of the arguments for preserving biodiversity itself.

Cultural fascism

Some claim that the attempt to preserve the purity of a culture against noncoercive incursions is itself a far worse imposition. Proponents of this view argue that not only ought people have the right to choose what media and other products they consume, including those of external cultures, but also that the lack of such rights is part of a kind of nationalism that leads in a dangerous direction. Not only is "Cultural Imperialism" a misnomer and an intellectually invalid concept, proponents of this view say, but it is by nature a culturally fascist accusation or retort against cosmopolitanism, and, ultimately, racist. This is part of a larger world view known as circular political theory^{[citation needed]} (the farther you go to the extreme left, the closer you come to the extreme right, and vice versa), which interprets so-called "anti-imperialist" movements and the "new leftism" as merely superficial reworkings of classic fascism.^{[citation needed]} Eugène Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution. ... Intellectual dishonesty is the creation of misleading impressions through the use of rhetoric, logical fallacy, fraud, or misrepresented evidence. ... Fascism is an authoritarian political ideology and mass movement that seeks to place the nation, defined in exclusive biological, cultural, and historical terms, above all other loyalties, and to create a mobilized national community. ... Manifestations Slavery · Racial profiling · Lynching Hate speech · Hate crime · Hate groups Genocide · Holocaust · Pogrom Ethnocide · Ethnic cleansing · Race war Religious persecution · Gay bashing Movements Discriminatory Aryanism · Neo-Nazism · Supremacism Fundamentalism · Kahanism Anti-discriminatory Abolitionism · Civil rights · Gay rights Womens/Universal suffrage · Mens rights Childrens rights · Youth rights... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The New Left is a term used to refer to radical left-wing movements from the 1960s onwards. ...

Opponents of this idea respond that it trivializes the idea of fascism, and that nationalism or cultural pride as such is not intrinsically dangerous. Some add that the root of its mistake is to mischaracterize fascism by its surface traits, ignoring the importance of its social base; similar rhetoric in the mouths of the powerful and the powerless has a different meaning. On the other hand, one could retort that the very idea of cultural imperialism itself trivializes imperialism, as revealed by a comparison of Japanese atrocities in China in the late 1930s to the influence of American jazz and film in Paris during that same period.^{[citation needed]}

Said and post-colonial studies

The writer Edward Said, one of the founders of the field of post-colonial study, wrote extensively on the subject of cultural imperialism, and his work is considered by many to form an important cornerstone in this area of study. His work attempts to highlight the inaccuracies of many assumptions about cultures and societies, and is largely informed by Michel Foucault's concepts of discourse and power. The relatively new academic field of post-colonial theory has been the source for most of the in-depth work on the idea of discursive and other non-military mechanisms of imperialism, and its validity is disputed by those who deny that these forms are genuinely imperialistic. Edward Wadie Said (Arabic: ‎, translit: ) (1 November 1935, Jerusalem &ndash 25 September 2003, New York City) was a well-known Palestinian-American literary theorist and outspoken Palestinian activist. ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Michel Foucault (IPA pronunciation: ; English-speakers pronunciation varies) (October 15, 1926 – June 25, 1984) was a French philosopher and historian. ... Discourse is a term used in semantics as in discourse analysis, but it also refers to a social conception of discourse, often linked with the work of French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926-1984) and Jürgen Habermas The Theory of Communicative Action (1985). ... Much of the recent sociological debate on power revolves around the issue of constraining and/or enabling nature of power. ...

Rothkopf on dealing with cultural dominance

David Rothkopf, managing director of Kissinger Associates and an adjunct professor of international affairs at Columbia University (who also served as a senior Commerce Department official in the Clinton Administration), wrote about cultural imperialism in his provocatively titled "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism" in the Summer 1997 issue of Foreign Policy magazine. Rothkopf says that America should embrace "cultural imperialism" as in its self interest. But his definition of cultural imperialism stresses spreading the values of tolerance and openness to cultural change in order to avoid war and conflict between cultures as well as expanding accepted technological and legal standards to provide free traders with enough security to do business with more countries. Rothkopf's definition almost exclusively involves allowing individuals in other nations to accept or reject foreign cultural influences. He also mentions, but only in passing, the use of English and consumption of news and popular music and film as cultural dominance that he supports. Rothkopf additionally makes the point that globalization and the Internet are accelerating the process of cultural influence.^[4]

Culture is used by the organizers of society — politicians, theologians, academics, and families — to impose and ensure order, the rudiments of which change over time as need dictates. It is less often acknowledged as the means of justifying inhumanity and warfare. [...] cultural differences are often sanctified by their links to the mystical roots of culture, be they spiritual or historical. Consequently, a threat to one's culture becomes a threat to one's God or one's ancestors and, therefore, to one's core identity. This inflammatory formula has been used to justify many of humanity's worst acts.

[O]ne need only look at the 20th century's genocides. In each one, leaders used culture to fuel the passions of their armies and other minions and to justify their actions among their people.

Rothkopf then cites genocide and massacres in Armenia, Russia, the Nazi Holocaust, Cambodia, Bosnia, Rwanda and Timor as examples of culture (in some cases expressed in the ideology of "political culture" or religion) being used to justify violence. He also acknowldedges that cultural imperialism in the past has been guilty of forcefully eliminating the cultures of natives in the Americas and in Africa, or through use of the Inquisition, "and during the expansion of virtually every empire." But he adds that the charge of "cultural imperialism" has too often been a rhetorical cudgel used by mullahs, dictators, authoritarians, demagogues and others to help shore up their rule in the face of influential foreign ideas about freedom, democracy, human rights and the social practices and ideas that support those ideals.

The important way to deal with cultural influence in any nation, according to Rothkopf, is to promote tolerance and allow, or even promote, cultural diversities that are compatible with tolerance and to eliminate those cultural differences that cause violent conflict:

Successful multicultural societies, be they nations, federations, or other conglomerations of closely interrelated states, discern those aspects of culture that do not threaten union, stability, or prosperity (such as food, holidays, rituals, and music) and allow them to flourish. But they counteract or eradicate the more subversive elements of culture (exclusionary aspects of religion, language, and political/ideological beliefs). History shows that bridging cultural gaps successfully and serving as a home to diverse peoples requires certain social structures, laws, and institutions that transcend culture. Furthermore, the history of a number of ongoing experiments in multiculturalism, such as in the European Union, India, South Africa, and the United States, suggests that workable, if not perfected, integrative models exist. Each is built on the idea that tolerance is crucial to social well-being, and each at times has been threatened by both intolerance and a heightened emphasis on cultural distinctions. The greater public good warrants eliminating those cultural characteristics that promote conflict or prevent harmony, even as less-divisive, more personally observed cultural distinctions are celebrated and preserved.

See also

• Cultural hegemony
• Transculturation
• Media and ethnicity
• Ethnocide
• Hegemony
• Genocide
• Overseas expansion of the United States
• Colonialism
• Coolitude
• Cultural Cringe

Cultural hegemony is a concept coined by Marxist philosopher Antonio Gramsci. ... Transculturation is a term coined by Fernando Ortiz in 1947 to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Ethnocide is a concept related to genocide; unlike genocide, which has entered into international law, ethnocide remains primarily the province of ethnologists, who have not yet settled on a single cohesive meaning for the term. ... Hegemony (pronounced or ) (Greek: ) is the dominance of one group over other groups, with or without the threat of force, to the extent that, for instance, the dominant party can dictate the terms of trade to its advantage; more broadly, cultural perspectives become skewed to favor the dominant group. ... Look up Genocide in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... United States overseas expansion follows the expansion of U.S. frontiers on the North American continent (see Mexican-American War, War of 1812, and Territorial acquisitions of the United States). ... Pith helmet of the Second French Empire. ... Coolitude is a term referring to the cultural interaction of the Indian or Chinese diaspora, and any migratory episode seen through its variegated aspects. ... Cultural cringe, in cultural studies and social anthropology, is the controversial idea that some national cultures suffer from an internalized inferiority complex which causes people in those countries to dismiss their own culture as inferior to the cultures of other countries. ...

References

1. ^ http://www.theculturedtraveler.com/Museums/Archives/U_Penn.htm
2. ^ http://satucket.com/lectionary/BCP.htm
3. ^ Who is Tomlinson? Perhaps an earlier reference to "Tomlinson, 1991" was deleted; in any case, the reference is now next to useless unless it can be clarified
4. ^ [1]Rothkopf, David, "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism," Foreign Affairs, Summer 1997, Volume 107, pp. 38-53; all descriptions of Rothkopf's points and his quotes are from this article

TOMLINSON, John, Cultural Imperialism: A Critical Introduction, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991.

External links

• "In Praise of Cultural Imperialism", by David Rothkopf, Foreign Policy, Summer 1997.
• "Reconsidering cultural imperialism theory" by Livingston A. White, Transnational Broadcasting Studies, Spring/Summer 2001.
• Academic Web page discussing the idea of cultural imperialism