Julius Caesar, from the bust in the British Museum, in Cassell's History of England (1902).

Ancient Roman culture evolved throughout the almost 1200-year history of that civilization. The term refers to the culture of the Roman Republic, later the Roman Empire, which, at peak, covered an area from Cumbria and Morocco to the Euphrates, from North Africa to Scotland. Download high resolution version (800x837, 150 KB)Julius Caesar Image from Cassells History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902 Scan by Tagishsimon, 23rd June 2004 This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (800x837, 150 KB)Julius Caesar Image from Cassells History of England - Century Edition - published circa 1902 Scan by Tagishsimon, 23rd June 2004 This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... London museum | name = British Museum | image = British Museum from NE 2. ... Year 1902 (MCMII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday [1] of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... For other uses, see Culture (disambiguation). ... Central New York City. ... This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Cumbria (IPA: ), is a shire county in the extreme North West of England. ... For the song River Euphrates by the Pixies, see Surfer Rosa. ...

Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, its famed seven hills, and its monumental structures such as the Flavian Amphitheatre (now called the Colosseum), the Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon. The city also had several theaters, gymnasiums, and many taverns, baths and brothels. Throughout the territory under ancient Rome's control, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas, and in the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word "palace" is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city center, packed into insulae (apartment blocks). Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... For other uses, see City (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ... For the film starring Mario Lanza, see Seven Hills of Rome (film). ... For other uses, see Monument (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... For information about the jazz-rock band of this name, see Colosseum (band) The Colosseum in Rome, Italy The inner layers of the Colosseum The Colosseum or Coliseum, originally known as the Flavian Amphitheatre (lat. ... The Roman Forum (Forum Romanum, although the Romans referred to it more often as the Forum Magnum or just the Forum) was the central area around which ancient Rome developed, in which commerce, business, trading and the administration of justice took place. ... Facade of the Pantheon The Pantheon (Latin Pantheon[1], from Greek Πάνθεον Pantheon, meaning Temple of all the gods) is a building in Rome which was originally built as a temple to the seven deities of the seven planets in the state religion of Ancient Rome. ... ‹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ... The gymnasium functioned as a training facility for competitors in public games. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Roman public baths in Bath, England. ... A brothel, also known as a bordello or whorehouse, is an establishment specifically dedicated to prostitution, providing the prostitutes a place to meet and to have sex with the clients. ... A residential area is a type of land use where the predominant use is residential. ... This article is about building architecture. ... House at Cúcuta, Colombia A house is a building typically lived in by one or more people. ... A Roman villa is a villa that was built or lived in during the Roman Empire. ... Capital City is a 60-minute television show produced by Euston Films that ran for 13 episodes in 1989 on ITV. This drama focused on the lives of investment bankers in London living and working on the corporate trading floor for the fictional international bank Shane-Longman. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... House at Cúcuta, Colombia A house is a building typically lived in by one or more people. ... 17th century aviaries on the hill, built by Rainaldi for Odoardo Cardinal Farnese: once wirework cages surmounted them. ...

The city of Rome was the largest megalopolis of that time, with a population that may well have exceeded one million people, with a high end estimate of 3.5 million and a low end estimate of 450,000. The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariot traffic at night. Historical estimates indicate that around 20 percent of population under the jurisdiction of the ancient Rome lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of at least 10,000 and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by preindustrial standards. The most urbanized part of the empire was Italy, which had an estimated rate of urbanization of 32%, the same rate of urbanization of England in 1800. Most Roman towns and cities had a forum and temples and same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome. The large urban population required an endless supply of food which was a complex logistical task, including acquiring, transporting, storing and distribution of food for Rome and other urban centers. Italian farms supplied vegetables and fruits, but fish and meat were luxuries. Aqueducts were built to bring water to urban centers and wine and oil were imported from Hispania, Gaul and Africa. Megalopolis (Greek: large city, great city) can mean: The town of Megalópoli (Μεγαλοπολη), Megalopolis, Greece. ... For other uses, see Chariot (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Part of the Roman Forum. ... Logistics is the art and science of managing and controlling the flow of goods, energy and information. ... For other uses, see Farm (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Vegetable (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fish (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Meat (disambiguation). ... A luxury good is a good at the highest end of the market in terms of quality and price. ... Pont du Gard, France, a Roman era aqueduct circa 19 BC. It is one of Frances top tourist attractions at over 1. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with vegetable oil. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Iberian Peninsula. ... Gaul (Latin: ) was the name given, in ancient times, to the region of Western Europe comprising present-day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Switzerland and the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the west bank of the Rhine river. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ...

There was a very large amount of commerce between the provinces of the Roman Empire since its transportation technology was very efficient. The average costs of transport and the technology were comparable with 18th century Europe. The later city of Rome did not fill the space within its ancient aurelian walls until after 1870.

Eighty percent of the population under the jurisdiction of ancient Rome lived in the countryside in settlements with less than 10 thousand inhabitants. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. The plight of rural slaves was generally worse than their counterparts working in urban aristocratic households. To stimulate a higher labor productivity most landlords freed a large numbers of slaves and many received wages. Some records indicate that "as many as 42 people lived in one small farm hut in Egypt, while six families owned a single olive tree."^{[citation needed]} . Such a rural environment continued to induce migration of population to urban centers until the early 2nd century, when the urban population stopped growing and started to decline. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Rural areas are sparsely settled places away from the influence of large cities and towns. ... Slave redirects here. ... Aristocracy is a form of government in which rulership is in the hands of an upper class known as aristocrats. ... The household is the basic unit of analysis in many microeconomic and government models. ...

Starting in the middle of the second century BC, in every aspect of the private culture of the upper classes, Greek culture was increasingly in ascendancy, in spite of tirades against the "softening" effects of Hellenized culture from the conservative moralists. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls); chefs, decorators, secretaries, doctors, and hairdressers—all came from the Greek East. Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the villas, or were imitated in Roman sculpture yards by Greek slaves. The Roman cuisine preserved in the cookery books ascribed to Apicius is essentially Greek. Roman writers disdained Latin for a cultured Greek style. Only in law and governance was the Italic nature of Rome's accretive culture supreme. A Roman villa is a villa that was built or lived in during the Roman Empire. ... Apicius was a name applied to three celebrated Roman epicures, the first of whom lived during the Republic; the second of whom, Marcus Gavius (or Gabius) Apicius—the most famous in his own time—lived under the early Empire; a third lived in the late 4th or early 5th century. ...

Against this human background, both the urban and rural setting, one of history's most influent civilizations took shape, leaving behind a cultural legacy that survives in part today. Cities with at least a million inhabitants in 2006 An urban area is an area with an increased density of human-created structures in comparison to the areas surrounding it. ... Sign in a rural area in Dalarna, Sweden Qichun, a rural town in Hubei province, China Rural areas (also referred to as the country, countryside) are settled places outside towns and cities. ... Central New York City. ... The word culture, from the Latin colo, -ere, with its root meaning to cultivate, generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activity significance. ...

Historical and cultural context

Many aspects of Roman culture were taken from the ancient Greeks. In architecture and sculpture, the continuity between Greek models and Roman imitations are apparent. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the arch, and the dome it made possible. While much Roman sculpture was derivative of Greek models, and all deeply indebted to Greek techniques, the Roman character made portraiture the strongest and most original aspect of Roman sculpture. Strongly characterized portrait busts like the surviving portrait bust of Cato the Elder display a clearly envisioned, strongly individual character, not an idealized type such as are typically found in Greek portrait sculptures. The term ancient Greece refers to the periods of Greek history in Classical Antiquity, lasting ca. ... This article is about building architecture. ... Sculptor redirects here. ... For other uses, see Arch (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Dome (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Portrait (disambiguation). ... Marcus Porcius Cato (Latin: M·PORCIVS·M·F·CATO[1]) (234 BC, Tusculum–149 BC) was a Roman statesman, surnamed the Censor (Censorius), Sapiens, Priscus, or the Elder (Major), to distinguish him from Cato the Younger (his great-grandson). ...

Rome has also had a tremendous impact on Western cultures following it. Its significance is perhaps best reflected in its endurance and influence, as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of works of Virgil and Ovid. Additionally telling are the many aspects of Classical culture that have been incorporated into the cultures of those states rising from the ashes of the Roman Empire. Latin, the empire's primary language, remains used in religion, science, and law. Christianity was adopted by the official culture in the later 4th century; its triumph over rival officially sanctioned cults, of Mithras, For other uses, see Virgil (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Ovid (disambiguation) Publius Ovidius Naso (March 20, 43 BC – 17 AD) was a Roman poet known to the English-speaking world as Ovid who wrote on topics of love, abandoned women and mythological transformations. ... Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, which begins roughly with the earliest-recorded Greek poetry of Homer (7th century BC), and continues through the rise of Christianity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century AD... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For other uses, see Law (disambiguation). ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

Social structure

Main article: Social class in ancient Rome

The center of the early social structure, dating from the time of the agricultural tribal city state, was the family, which was not only marked by blood relations but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas. The Pater familias was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife (if she was given to him sub manu, otherwise the father of wife retained patria potestas), his children, the wives of his sons (again if married sub manu which became rarer towards the end of the Republic), the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen (liberated slaves, the first generation still legally inferior to the freeborn), disposing of them and of their goods at will, even putting them to death. Roman law recognized only patrician families as legal entities. The toga was the distinctive garb of Romen men, while women wore stolas. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ...

Slavery and slaves were part of the social order. The slaves were mostly prisoners of war. There were slave markets where they could be bought and sold. Roman law was not consistent about the status of slaves, except that they were considered like any other moveable property. Many slaves were freed by the masters for fine services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally mutilation and murder of slaves was prohibited by legislation although, outrageous cruelty continued[1]. Slave redirects here. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... For the novel by Ernest Hemingway, see A Moveable Feast. ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Mutilation or maiming is an act or physical injury that degrades the appearance or function of the (human) body, usually causing death. ...

Apart from these families (called gentes) and the slaves (legally objects, mancipia i.e. 'kept in the [master's] hand') there were Plebeians that did not exist from a legal perspective. They had no legal capacity and were not able to make contracts, even though they were not slaves. To deal with this problem, the so-called clientela was created. By this institution, a plebeian joined the family of a patrician (in a legal sense) and could close contracts by mediation of his patrician pater familias. Everything the plebeian possessed or acquired legally belonged to the gens. He was not allowed to form his own gens. In Ancient Rome, the plebs was the general body of Roman citizens, distinct from the privileged class of the patricians. ... Clientela was a Roman law, or social convention that linked Plebians with the legal, social, and sometimes economic protection of Patrician families. ... GENS is an open source emulator for the Sega Genesis (Sega Megadrive). ...

The authority of the pater familias was unlimited, be it in civil rights as well as in criminal law. The king's duty was to be head over the military, to deal with foreign politics and also to decide on controversies between the gentes. The patricians were divided into three tribes (Ramnenses, Titientes, Luceres).

During the time of the Roman Republic (founded in 509 BC) Roman citizens were allowed to vote. These included patricians and plebeians. Women, slaves and children were not allowed to vote. There were two assemblies, the assembly of centuries (comitia centuriata) and the assembly of tribes (comitia tributa), which were made up of all the citizens of Rome. In the comitia centuriata the Romans were divided according to age, wealth and residence. The citizens in each tribe were divided into five classes based on property and then each group was subdivided into two centuries by age. All in all, there were 373 centuries. Like the assembly of tribes, each century had one vote. The Comitia Centuriata elected the Praetors (judicial magistrates), the Censors, and the Consuls. This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and trends September 13, 509 BC - The temple of Jupiter on Romes Capitoline Hill is... The word citizen may refer to: A person with a citizenship Citizen Watch Co. ...

The comitia tributa comprised thirty-five tribes from Rome and the country. Each tribe had a single vote. The Comitia Tributa elected the Quaestors (financial magistrates) and the patrician Curule Aedile. The Roman assemblies were the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, and the Comitia Tributa and posessed ultimate legislative and judicial powers in the Roman Republic and were also responsible for the election of magistrates. ... Quaestors were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. ... Aedile was an office of the Roman Republic. ...

Over time, Roman law evolved considerably, as well as social views, emancipating (to increasing degrees) family members.

Customs and daily life

Life in the ancient Roman cities revolved around the Forum, the central business district, where most of the Romans would go for marketing and shopping, trading and banking, and for participating in festivities and ceremonies. The Forum was also a place where orators would express themselves to mould public opinion, and elicit support for any particular issue of interest to him or others. Before sunrise, children would go to schools or tutoring them at home would commence. Elders would dress, take a breakfast by 11 o'clock, have a nap and in the afternoon or evening would generally go to the Forum. Going to public bath at least once daily was a habit with most Roman citizens. There were separate baths for men and women. The main difference was that the women's baths were smaller than the men's, and did not have a frigidarium (cold room) or a palaestra (exercise area). The Forum of Jerash, in Jordan. ... The Central Business District of Sydney, Australia. ... Next big thing redirects here. ... Shopping is the examining of goods or services from retailers with intent to purchase. ... This article is about economic exchange. ... For other uses, see Bank (disambiguation). ... Public Opinion is a book on media and democracy by Walter Lippmann. ... A typical sunrise, in New Zealand A sunrise through clouds over Oakland, California. ... The word citizen may refer to: A person with a citizenship Citizen Watch Co. ...

Different types of outdoor and indoor entertainment, free of cost, were available in the ancient Rome. Depending on the nature of the events, they were scheduled during daytime, afternoons, evenings or late night. Huge crowds gathered at the Colosseum to watch events like gladiators, combats between men, or fights between men and the wild animals. The Circus Maximus was used for chariot racing. Endless such activities were also conducted in other cities under ancient Rome. The Colosseum by night: exterior view of the best-preserved section. ... For other uses, see Gladiator (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Circus Maximus (disambiguation). ...

Life in the countryside was slow but lively, with numerous local festivals and social events. Farms were run by the farm managers, but estate owners would sometimes take a retreat to the countryside for rest, enjoying the splendor of the nature and the sunshine, including activities like fishing, hunting, and riding. On the other hand, slave labor slogged on continuously, for long hours and all seven days, and ensuring comforts and creating wealth for their masters. The average farm owners were better off, spending evenings in economic and social interactions at the village markets. The day ended with a meal, generally left over from the noon time preparations. For other uses, see Festival (disambiguation). ... Look up Market in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Clothing

Roman clad in a toga

In ancient Rome, the cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by plebeians (common people) like shepherds and slaves was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the tunic worn by patricians was of linen or white wool. A magistrate would wear the tunic augusticlavi; senators wore a tunic with broad strips, called tunica laticlavi. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. Image File history File links Toga_Illustration. ... Image File history File links Toga_Illustration. ... Marcus Aurelius wearing a toga. ... In Ancient Rome, the plebs was the general body of Roman citizens, distinct from the privileged class of the patricians. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... This is an article about the privileged class in ancient Rome. ...

The many types of togas were also named. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the toga praetexta, which was a toga with a crimson or purple border. Magistrates in office also wore this. The toga virilis, (or toga pura) or mans toga was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome. The toga picta was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The toga pulla was worn when in mourning.

Even footwear indicated a person’s social status. Patricians wore red and orange sandals, senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Women wore closed shoes of colors like white, yellow or green. High-heeled shoe Footwear consists of garments worn on the feet. ... Modern multi-colored Sandalette Yoga sandals In some parts of the United States, this type of sandal is referred to in slang as the mandal in that it is worn primarily by men. ...

The bulla was a locket-like amulet worn by children. When about to marry, the woman would donate her bulla to the household gods, along with her toys to signify maturity and womanhood. ((stub))Bulla, an amulet and worn like a locket, was given to children, at the time of birth, in Ancient Rome. ... A locket is a pendant that opens to reveal a space used for storing a photograph or other small item. ...

Men typically wore a toga, and women a stola. Marcus Aurelius wearing a toga. ... The stola was the traditional garment of Roman women, corresponding to the toga that was worn by men. ...

The woman's stola looked different than a toga, and was usually bright colored. A fibula (or brooch) would be used as ornamentation or to hold the stola in place. A palla, or shawl also accessorized a Roman woman.

Dining

Main article: Roman cuisine

Since the period of the Republic until 200 BC, ancient Romans had very simple food habits. Staple food was simple, generally consumed at around 11 o’clock, and consisted of bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruits, nuts, and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. Breakfast was called ientaculum, lunch was pranduim, and dinner was called cena. Appetizers were called gustatio, and desert was called secunda mensa Usually, a nap or rest followed this. Still life with fruit basket and vases (Pompeii, ca. ... The eastern hemisphere in 200 BC. Antiochus IIIs forces continue their invasion of Coele Syria, defeating the Egyptian general Scopas at Panion near the source of the Jordan River, and thus gaining control of Palestine. ... For other uses, see Bread (disambiguation). ... This article deals with food. ... Binomial name L. 19th century illustration The Olive (Olea europaea) is a species of small tree in the family Oleaceae, native to coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean region, from Syria and the maritime parts of Asia Minor and northern Iran at the south end of the Caspian Sea. ... Cheese is a solid food made from the milk of cows, goats, sheep, and other mammals. ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Nut (disambiguation). ...

The family ate together, sitting on stools around a table. Later on, a separate dining room with dining couches was designed, called a triclinium. Fingers were used to take foods which was prepared to be handled with fingers beforehand and spoons were used for soups. Look up stool in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... A wooden dining table and chairs. ... For other uses, see Spoon (disambiguation). ...

Wine was considered a staple drink, consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap, however it was always drunk mixed with water. This was the case even during explicit evening drinking events (comissatio) where an important part of the festivity was choosing a arbiter bibendi (Judge of Drinking) who was, among other things, responsible for deciding the ratio of wine to water in the drinking wine. Common wine to water ratios of 1:2, 1:3, or 1:4 were commonly used. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed, as well. Mulsum was honeyed wine, mustum was grape juice, mulsa was honeyed water. The per-person-consummation of wine per day in the city Rome has been estimated to 0.8 - 1.1 gallons for males and about 0.5 gallons for females. Even the notoriously strict Cato the Elder recommended distributing a daily ration of - low quality - wine of more than 0.5 gallons among the slaves forced to work on farms. (Needs Citation) // Cato may refer to: Romans, in the family Porcii: Cato the Elder or the Censor (Marcus Porcius Cato 234BC–149BC), Roman statesman Marcus Porcius Cato Licinianus, son of Cato the Elder by his first wife Licinia, jurist Marcus Porcius Cato, son of Cato Licinianus, consul 118 BC, died in Africa...

Drinking non-watered wine (called mulsum) or on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were already recognized in ancient Rome. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic - in the gossip-crazy society of the city bound to come to light and easily verified - was a favorite and damaging way to discredit political rivals employed by some of Rome's greatest orators like Cicero and Caesar. Prominent Roman alcoholics include Mark Antony, Cicero's own son Marcus (Cicero Minor) and the emperor Tiberius Claudius Nero whose soldiers gave him the unflattering nickname Biberius Caldius Nero (lit. boozer of pure wine, Sueton Tib. 42,1). Cato the Younger was also known as a heavy drinker, frequently found stumbling home disorientatedly in the early hours of morning by fellow citizens. Alcoholism is the consumption of, or preoccupation with, alcoholic beverages to the extent that this behavior interferes with the drinkers normal personal, family, social, or work life, and may lead to physical or mental harm. ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ... Look up Caesar in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Bust of Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N[1]) ( January 14 83 BC – August 1, 30 BC), known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general. ... Marcus Tullius Cicero Minor (Minor Latin for ‘the younger’) or Cicero the Younger (born 65 BC) was the second child and only son to Rome’s most famous orator, consul and senator Marcus Tullius Cicero from his first marriage to Terentia Varrones. ... Tiberius Claudius Nero may refer to several individuals of the Roman Empire: Tiberius Nero, first husband to Livia and lieutenant of Julius Caesar Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar aka Emperor Tiberius, son of Tiberius and Livia Tiberius Claudius Nero Caesar Drusus, aka Emperor Claudius, nephew of Tiberius and grandson of Tiberius... Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC–46 BC), known as Cato the Younger (Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather Cato the Elder), was a politician and statesman in the late Roman Republic, and a follower of the Stoic philosophy. ...

During the Imperial period, staple food of the lower class Romans (plebeians) was vegetable porridge and bread, and occasionally fish, meat, olives and fruits. Sometimes, subsidized or free foods were distributed in cities. The patrician's aristocracy had elaborate dinners, with parties and wines and a variety of comestibles. Sometimes, dancing girls would entertain the diners. Their women and children ate separately, but in the later Empire period, with permissiveness creeping in, even decent women would attend such dinner parties. A staple food is a food that forms the basis of a traditional diet. ... ‹ The template below is being considered for deletion. ... For other uses, see Bread (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fish (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Meat (disambiguation). ... Binomial name L. 19th century illustration The Olive (Olea europaea) is a species of small tree in the family Oleaceae, native to coastal areas of the eastern Mediterranean region, from Syria and the maritime parts of Asia Minor and northern Iran at the south end of the Caspian Sea. ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ...

Education

Main article: Roman school

Before regular schooling systems evolved in ancient Rome, home was the learning center, where children were taught Roman law, customs, and physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army. Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction from their mothers in the art of spinning, weaving ,and sewing. The Roman school is the education system of the Ancient Rome. ... This article is about swarms in biology. ... Using the term Roman law in a broader sense, one may say that Roman law is not only the legal system of ancient Rome but the law that was applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 18th century. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Recruitment refers to the process of finding possible candidates for a job or function, usually undertaken by recruiters. ... For other uses, see Army (disambiguation). ... A hand-turned spinning wheel in action Cones of yarn for industrial use Z-twist and S-twist yarns Spinning is the process of creating yarn (or thread, rope, cable) from various raw fiber materials. ... Tweed loom, Harris, 2004 Woven sheet Weaving is an ancient textile art and craft that involves placing two sets of threads or yarn called the warp and weft of the loom and turning them into cloth. ... Sewn redirects here. ...

Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC. Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading, writing and counting. By the age of twelve, they would be learning Latin, Greek, grammar and literature, followed by training for public speaking. Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt and good orators commanded respect; to become an effective orator was one of the objectives of education and learning. Poor children could not afford education. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education. The eastern hemisphere in 200 BC. Antiochus IIIs forces continue their invasion of Coele Syria, defeating the Egyptian general Scopas at Panion near the source of the Jordan River, and thus gaining control of Palestine. ... Reading is a process of retrieving and comprehending some form of stored information or ideas. ... Write redirects here. ... Counting is the mathematical action of repeatedly adding (or subtracting) one, usually to find out how many objects there are or to set aside a desired number of objects (starting with one for the first object and proceeding with an injective function from the remaining objects to the natural numbers... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... For the rules of English grammar, see English grammar and Disputes in English grammar. ... For other uses, see Literature (disambiguation). ... A modern day speaker addressing an audience through microphones Public speaking is the process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended to inform, influence, or entertain the listeners. ... Oratory is the art of eloquent speech. ... Learning is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values, and wisdom. ...

Language

Main article: Latin

The language of Rome has had a profound impact on later cultures, as demonstrated by this Latin Bible from 1407.

The native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic language. An inflectional and synthetic language, Latin relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affixes attached to word stems. Its alphabet, the Latin alphabet, is based on the Old Italic alphabet, which is in turn derived from the Greek alphabet. For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1500x1011, 310 KB) MARLENE JEANNINE Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of AD 1407 on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1500x1011, 310 KB) MARLENE JEANNINE Calligraphy in a Latin Bible of AD 1407 on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Bible (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Hypothetical distribution of languages in Iron Age Italy during the sixth century BC. The Italic subfamily is a member of the Centum branch of the Indo-European language family. ... Inflection of the Spanish lexeme for cat, with blue representing the masculine gender, pink representing the feminine gender, grey representing the form used for mixed-gender, and green representing the plural number. ... A synthetic language, in linguistic typology, is a language with a high morpheme-per-word ratio. ... Latin, like all other ancient Indo-European languages, is highly inflectional, and so has a very flexible word order. ... Look up affix in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... In-Silico Modeling and Conformational Mobility of String Pointer Reduction System (SPRS) Based on DNA Computers ... Abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz redirects here. ... Note: This article contains special characters. ... This page contains special characters. ...

Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artificial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st century BC, the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar, vocabulary, and eventually pronunciation. Also, although Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which became the Byzantine Empire; Greek was the main lingua franca as it had been since the time of Alexander the Great, while Latin was mostly used by the Roman administration and its soldiers. Eventually Greek would supplant Latin as both the official written and spoken language of the Eastern Roman Empire. Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language, remains an enduring legacy of the culture of ancient Rome. ... Classical Latin is the language used by the principal exponents of that language in what is usually regarded as classical Latin literature. ... A literary language is a register of a language that is used in writing, and which often differs in lexicon and syntax from the language used in speech. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ... Not to be confused with Latin profanity. ... Byzantine redirects here. ... For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Byzantine Empire. ...

The expansion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different locations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages beginning in around the 9th century. Many of these languages, including French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and Spanish, flourished, the differences between them growing greater over time. Although English is Germanic rather than Romanic in origin—Britannia was a Roman province, but the Roman presence in Britain had effectively disappeared by the time of the Anglo-Saxon invasions—English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin-derived words, drawing from ecclesiastical usage, from Romance languages like French, and even, more recently, consciously adapting words from Classical Latin authors. For dialects of programming languages, see Programming language dialect. ... The Romance languages, also called Romanic languages, are a subfamily of the Italic languages, specifically the descendants of the Vulgar Latin dialects spoken by the common people evolving in different areas after the break-up of the Roman Empire. ... As a means of recording the passage of time the 9th century was the century that lasted from 801 to 900. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies The Germanic languages form one of the branches of the Indo-European (IE) language family, spoken by the Germanic peoples who settled in northern Europe along the borders of the Roman Empire. ... For other uses, see Britannia (disambiguation). ... Map of the Roman Empire, with the provinces, after 120. ... For other uses, see Anglo-Saxon. ...

Although Latin is an extinct language with very few remaining fluent speakers, it remains in use in many ways. In particular, Latin has survived through Ecclesiastical Latin, the traditional language of the Roman Catholic Church and one of the official languages of the Vatican City. Although distinct from both Classical and Vulgar Latin in a number of ways, Ecclesiastical Latin was more stable than typical Medieval Latin, and more Classical sensibilities eventually re-emerged in the Renaissance with Humanist Latin. Due to both the prevalence of Christianity and the enduring influence of the Roman civilization, Latin became western Europe's lingua franca, a language used to cross international borders, such as for academic and diplomatic usage. Although it was eventually supplanted in this respect by French in the 19th century and English in the 20th, Latin continues to see heavy use in religious, legal, and scientific terminology, and in academia in general. An extinct language is a language which no longer has any native speakers, in contrast to a dead language, which is is a language which has stopped changing in grammar, vocabulary, and the complete meaning of a sentence. ... The term Ecclesiastical Latin (sometimes called Church Latin) refers to the Latin language as used in documents of the Roman Catholic Church and in its Latin liturgies. ... Catholic Church redirects here. ... Medieval Latin was the form of Latin used in the Middle Ages, primarily as a medium of scholarly exchange and as the liturgical language of the medieval Roman Catholic Church, but also as a language of science, literature, law, and administration. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... Humanist Latin is a name given to the distinctive Latin style developed by the humanist movement during the European Renaissance in the fifteenth century. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... Lingua franca, literally Frankish language in Italian, was originally a mixed language consisting largely of Italian plus a vocabulary drawn from Turkish, Persian, French, Greek and Arabic and used for communication throughout the Middle East. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... Academia is a collective term for the scientific and cultural community engaged in higher education and research, taken as a whole. ...

The Arts

Literature

Livy, the author of Ab Urbe Condita, a monumental history of Rome.

Main article: Latin literature

Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the republic expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. Image File history File linksMetadata Titus_Livius. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Titus_Livius. ... A portrait of Titus Livius made long after his death. ... Penguin Classics 1976 edition of Livys Ab Urbe condita, books XXXI-XLV Ab Urbe condita (literally, from the city, having been founded) is a monumental history of Rome, from its founding (ab Urbe condita, dated to 753 BC by Varro and most modern scholars). ... Latin literature, the body of written works in the Latin language, remains an enduring legacy of the culture of ancient Rome. ...

During the reign of the early emperors of Rome there was a golden age of historical literature. Works such as the 'Histories' of Tacitus, the 'Gallic Wars' by Julius Caesar and 'History of Rome' by Livy have been passed down to us. Unfortunately, in the case of Livy, much of the script has been lost and we are left with a few specific areas, the founding of the city, the war with Hannibal and its aftermath. The Histories (Latin: Historiae) is a book by Tacitus, written c. ... For other uses, see Tacitus (disambiguation). ... Commentarii de Bello Gallico (literally Commentaries on the Gallic War in Latin) is an account written by Julius Caesar (in the third person) about his nine years of war in Gaul. ... For other uses, see Julius Caesar (disambiguation). ... Penguin Classics 1976 edition of Livys Ab Urbe condita, books XXXI-XLV Ab Urbe condita (literally, from the city, having been founded) is a monumental history of Rome, from its founding (ab Urbe condita, dated to 753 BC by Varro and most modern scholars). ... A portrait of Titus Livius made long after his death. ... For other uses, see Hannibal (disambiguation). ...

Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His Aeneid was produced at the request of Maecenas and tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. Lucretius, in his On the Nature of Things, attempted to explicate science in an epic poem. Some of his science seems remarkably modern, but other ideas, especially his theory of light, are no longer accepted. Later Ovid produced his Metamorphoses, written in dactylic hexameter verse, the meter of epic, attempting a complete mythology from the creation of the earth to his own time. He unifies his subject matter through the theme of metamorphosis. It was noted in classical times that Ovid's work lacked the gravitas possessed by traditional epic poetry. For other uses, see Virgil (disambiguation). ... Aeneas flees burning Troy, Federico Barocci, 1598 Galleria Borghese, Rome The Aeneid (IPA English pronunciation: ; in Latin Aeneis, pronounced — the title is Greek in form: genitive case Aeneidos) is a Latin epic written by Virgil in the 1st century BC (between 29 and 19 BC) that tells the legendary story... Gaius or Cilnius Maecenas (70 - 8 BC) was a confidant and political advisor to Augustus Caesar, as well as an important sponsor of young poets. ... For other uses of Troy or Ilion, see Troy (disambiguation) and Ilion (disambiguation). ... Lucretius Titus Lucretius Carus (c. ... Not to be confused with The Nature of Things, a Canadian Broadcasting Corporation television show about natural science. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For other uses, see Ovid (disambiguation) Publius Ovidius Naso (March 20, 43 BC – 17 AD) was a Roman poet known to the English-speaking world as Ovid who wrote on topics of love, abandoned women and mythological transformations. ... // Cover of George Sandyss 1632 edition of Ovids Metamorphosis Englished The Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid is a poem in fifteen books that describes the creation and history of the world in terms according to Greek and Roman points of view. ... Dactyllic hexameter (also known as heroic hexameter) is a form of meter in poetry or a rhythmic scheme. ... Look up gravitas in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

Catullus and the associated group of neoteric poets produced poetry following the Alexandrian model, which experimented with poetic forms challenging tradition. Catullus was also the first Roman poet to produce love poetry, seemingly autobiographical, which depicts an affair with a woman called Lesbia. Under the reign of the Emperor Augustus, Horace continued the tradition of shorter poems, with his Odes and Epodes. Martial, writing under the Emperor Domitian, was a famed author of epigrams, poems which were often abusive and censured public figures. Fresco from Herculaneum, presumably showing a love couple. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ... For other people named Horace, see Horace (disambiguation). ... Marcus Valerius Martialis, known in English as Martial, was a Latin poet from Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula) best known for his twelve books of Epigrams, published in Rome between AD 86 and 103, during the reigns of the emperors Domitian, Nerva and Trajan. ... Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 – 18 September 96), commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor of the gens Flavia. ... An epigram is a short poem with a clever twist at the end or a concise and witty statement. ...

The genre of satire was traditionally regarded as a Roman innovation, and satires were written by, among others, Juvenal and Persius. Some of the most popular plays of the early Republic were comedies, especially those of Terence, a freed Roman slave captured during the First Punic War. Frontispiece depicting Juvenal and Persius, from a volume translated by John Dryden in 1711. ... Persius, in full Aulus Persius Flaccus (AD 34-62), was a Roman poet and satirist. ... Publius Terentius Afer, better known as Terence, was a comic playwright of the Roman Republic. ... Osama was here and he doesnt enjoy this site???? the red sox won and i am one happy camper. ...

A great deal of the literary work produced by Roman authors in the early Republic was political or satirical in nature. The rhetorical works of Cicero, in particular, were popular. In addition, Cicero's personal letters are considered to be one of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity. Rhetoric (from Greek , rhêtôr, orator, teacher) is generally understood to be the art or technique of persuasion through the use of oral, visual, or written language; however, this definition of rhetoric has expanded greatly since rhetoric emerged as a field of study in universities. ... For other uses, see Cicero (disambiguation). ...

Visual art

Main article: Roman art

Most early Roman painting styles show Etruscan influences, particularly in the practice of political painting. In the 3rd century BC, Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular, and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Evidence from the remains at Pompeii shows diverse influence from cultures spanning the Roman world. Fresco from the Villa of the Mysteries. ... Extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities. ...

An early Roman style of note was "Incrustation", in which the interior walls of houses were painted to resemble colored marble. Another style consisted of painting interiors as open landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals, and buildings.

Portrait sculpture during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. During the Antonine and Severan periods, more ornate hair and bearding became prevalent, created with deeper cutting and drilling. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, usually depicting Roman victories.

Music

Main article: Roman music

Detail of a mosaic found in Pompeii. The figure on the left is playing the double aulos, double-reed pipes; the figure in the middle, cymbalum, small, bronze cymbals; and on the right, the tympanum, a tambourine-like drum.

Music was a major part of everyday life in Ancient Rome. Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and maneouvres. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use would not be familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier. Romans did not give a great place for music, and they did not invent it themselves. ... Image File history File links Pompmusic. ... Image File history File links Pompmusic. ... Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ...

Architecture

Main article: Roman architecture

In initial stages, the ancient Roman architecture reflected elements of architectural styles of the Etruscans and the Greeks. Over a period of time, the style was modified in tune with their urban requirements, and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. The Roman concrete has remained a riddle[2], and even after more than 2000 years some of ancient Roman structures still stand magnificently like the Pantheon (with one of the largest single span domes in the world) located in the business district of today’s Rome. ‹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ... The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland. ... Old Executive Office Building, Washington D.C. Bank of China Tower, Hong Kong, China In architecture, construction, engineering and real estate development the word building may refer to one of the following: Any man-made structure used or intended for supporting or sheltering any use or continuous occupancy, or An... For other uses, see Construction (disambiguation). ... By the mid 20th century humans had achieved a mastery of technology sufficient to leave the surface of the Earth for the first time and explore space. ... This article is about the construction material. ...

The architectural style of the capital city of ancient Rome was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence [3], like the Amphitheatre, Verona, Italy; Arch of Hadrian, Athens, Greece; Temple of Hadrian, Ephesos, Turkey; a Theatre at Orange, France; and at several other locations, for example, Lepcis Magna, located in Libya[4]. Roman cities were well planned, efficiently managed and neatly maintained. Palaces, private dwellings and villas, were elaborately designed and town planning was comprehensive with provisions for different activities by the urban resident population, and for countless migratory population of travelers, traders and visitors passing through their cities. This article is about the city in Italy. ... This article is about the capital of Greece. ... Ephesus was one one of the great cities of the Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor, located in Lydia where the Cayster river flows into the Aegean Sea (in modern day Turkey). ... The quintessential medieval European palace: Palais de la Cité, in Paris, the royal palace of France. ... A dwelling is a structure in which humans or other animals live. ... The Albertian Villa Medici in Fiesole: terraced grounds on a sloping site. ... Urban, city, or town planning, deals with design of the built environment from the municipal and metropolitan perspective. ...

Marcus Vitruvius Pollio, a 1st century BC Roman architect’s treatise “De architectura”, with various sections, dealing with urban planning, building materials, temple construction, public and private buildings, and hydraulics, remained a classic text until the Renaissance. Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born c. ... (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium) The 1st century BC started on January 1, 100 BC and ended on December 31, 1 BC. An alternative name for this century is the last century BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero. ... De architectūra (Latin: On architecture) was a treatise on architecture written by the Roman architect Vitruvius and dedicated to his patron, the emperor Caesar Augustus. ... Table of Hydraulics and Hydrostatics, from the 1728 Cyclopaedia. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ...

Sports and entertainment

The ancient city of Rome had a place called Campus, a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers, which was located near the Tiber river. Later, the Campus became Rome’s track and field playground, which even Julius Caesar and Augustus were said to have frequented. Imitating the Campus in Rome, similar grounds were developed in several other urban centers and military settlements. Tiber River in Rome The River Tiber (Italian Tevere), the third longest river in Italy (disputed — see talk page) at 406 km (252 miles) after the Po and the Adige, flows through the Campagna and Rome in its course from Mount Fumaiolo to the Tyrrhenian Sea, which it reaches in... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ...

In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing. Riding, throwing, and swimming were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, pastime also included fishing and hunting. Females did not participate in these activities. Ball playing was a popular sport and ancient Romans had several ball games, which included Handball (Expulsim Ludere), field hockey, catch, and some form of Soccer. Look up Jumping in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Ancient Greek wrestlers (Pankratiasts) Wrestling is the act of physical engagement between two unarmed persons, in which each wrestler strives to get an advantage over or control of their opponent. ... For other meanings of these words, see boxing (disambiguation) or boxer (disambiguation). ... This article is about the speed competition. ... A young rider at a horse show in Australia. ... Throwing can have different meanings depending on the context. ... Swimmer redirects here. ... A hobby is a spare-time recreational pursuit. ... For the computer security term, see Phishing. ... This article is about the hunting of prey by human society. ... Alternate uses: See Ball (disambiguation) A ball is a round object that is used most often in sports and games. ...

Board games played in ancient Rome included Dice (Tesserae or Tali), Roman Chess (Latrunculi), Roman Checkers (Calculi), Tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli), and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon. A shelf of board games. ... Two standard six-sided pipped dice with rounded corners. ... The Venus Throw was the highest roll in the Ancient Roman gambling game of tali, or knucklebones. ... LÅ«dus lātrunculōrum, lātrunculÄ«, or simply lātrōnÄ“s (the game of brigands, from lātrunculus, diminutive of lātrō, mercenary or highwayman) is a game played by the ancient Romans. ... For other uses, see Draft. ... Tic-tac-toe, also called noughts and crosses and many other names, is a paper and pencil game between two players, O and X, who alternate in marking the spaces in a 3×3 board. ... XII scripta board in the museum at Ephesus Ludus duodecim scriptorum, or XII scripta, was a tables game popular during the time of the Roman Empire. ... Medieval illustration of Tabula players (13. ...

There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances, public executions and gladiatorial combat. In the Colosseum, Rome’s amphitheatre 50,000 persons could be accommodated. There are also accounts of the Colosseum’s floor being flooded to hold mock naval battles for the public to watch. Death Penalty World Map Color Key: Blue: Abolished for all crimes Green: Abolished for crimes not committed in exceptional circumstances (such as crimes committed in time of war) Orange: Abolished in Practice Red: Legal Form of Punishment Execution of a soldier of the 8th Infantry at Prescott, Arizona, 1877 Execution... The Colosseum by night: exterior view of the best-preserved section. ... The Colosseum in Rome, Italy. ...

Religion

Main article: Religion in ancient Rome

Roman religious beliefs date back to the founding of Rome, around 800 BC, but the Roman religion commonly associated with the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire did not start forming until around 500 BC when Romans came in contact with Greek culture and adopted many of the Greek’s religious beliefs including the representation of Greek gods in the form of humans. Religion in ancient Rome combined several different cult practices and embraced more than a single set of beliefs. ... For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ... Centuries: 10th century BC - 9th century BC - 8th century BC Decades: 850s BC 840s BC 830s BC 820s BC 810s BC - 800s BC - 790s BC 780s BC 770s BC 760s BC 750s BC Events and Trends 804 BC - Hadad-nirari IV of Assyria conquers Damascus. ... This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Centuries: 7th century BC - 6th century BC - 5th century BC Decades: 550s BC - 540s BC - 530s BC - 520s BC - 510s BC - 500s BC - 490s BC - 480s BC - 470s BC - 460s BC - 450s BC Events and Trends 509 BC - Foundation of the Roman Republic 508 BC - Office of pontifex maximus created...

Private and personal worship was an important aspect of religious practices of ancient Rome. In a sense, each household in ancient Rome was a temple to the gods. Each household had an altar (lararium), at which the family members would offer prayers, perform rites, and interact with the household gods. The household is the basic unit of analysis in many microeconomic and government models. ... Temple of Hephaestus, an Doric Greek temple in Athens with the original entrance facing east, 449 BC (western face depicted) For other uses, see Temple (disambiguation). ... Roman mythology can be considered as two parts. ... Lares Familiares (Family Guardians in Latin) were mythological spirits of ancient Rome. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...

Many of the gods that Romans worshiped came from the Proto-Indo-European pantheon, others were based on Greek gods. The three central deities were Jupiter (who was the god of rain, thunder, and lightning, of Proto-Indo-European origin), Mars (the god of warfare), called Ares by the Greeks, and Quirinus (who watched over the senate house), one of the truly Roman gods who was associated with the people of Sabine and with the founder of Rome, Romulus. Ancient anthropomorphic Ukrainian stone stela (Kernosovka stela), possibly depicting a late Proto-Indo-European god, most likely Dyeus The existence of similarities among the deities and religious practices of the Indo-European peoples allows glimpses of a common Proto-Indo-European religion and mythology. ... A listing of Greek mythological beings. ... For the planet see Jupiter. ... The Proto-Indo-Europeans are the hypothetical speakers of the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European language, a prehistoric people of the Chalcolithic and early Bronze Age. ... Mars was the Roman god of war, the son of Juno and either Jupiter or a magical flower. ... This article is about the ancient Greek god; for other uses, see Ares (disambiguation). ... In Roman mythology, Quirinus was an early god of the Roman state. ... This page describes the ancient heroes who founded the city of Rome. ...

From simplest form of such private worships and religious practices, religion in ancient Rome developed into an elaborate system, with temples, altars, rituals and ceremonies, priesthood, beliefs of traditional paganism and the cult of the Roman emperors. The power of ancient Rome spread ever further across a vast geographical area and Romans met with other cults and religions, like cults of Cybele, Bacchus, and Isis, as well as Judaism. The Temple of Hercules Victor, near the Teatro di Marcello in Rome (a Greek-style Roman temple) // Pagan history and architecture Originally in Roman paganism, a templum was not (necessarily) a cultic building but any ritually marked observation site for natural phenomena believed to allow predictions, such as the flight... Pagan and heathen redirect here. ... A fountain in Madrid depicting Cybele in her chariot drawn by lions, in the Plaza de Cibeles Originally a Phrygian goddess, Cybele (Greek: Κυβέλη) was a deification of the Earth Mother who was worshipped in Anatolia from Neolithic times. ... This article is about the ancient deity. ... This article discusses the ancient goddess Isis. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

With its cultural influence spreading over most of the Mediterranean, Romans began accepting foreign gods into their own culture, as well as other philosophical traditions such as cynicism and stoicism. There were even attempts by many Roman and Greek philosophers to accept other gods that countered their religion, such as the Jewish deity Yahweh (viewed as the only supreme God by the Israelites) by stating that the Jews merely worshiped Jupiter but just under a different name and therefore there should be an acceptance of the Jewish culture. With the fall of the Roman Republic and the reign of the emperors which created the Roman Empire in 31 BC the Roman emperors were considered to be gods incarnate. The Mediterranean Sea is an intercontinental sea positioned between Europe to the north, Africa to the south and Asia to the east, covering an approximate area of 2. ... This article is about the current understanding of the word cynicism. ... Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy, founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early third century BC. It proved to be a popular and durable philosophy, with a following throughout Greece and the Roman Empire from its founding until all the schools of philosophy were ordered closed... The word Jew ( Hebrew: יהודי) is used in a wide number of ways, but generally refers to a follower of the Jewish faith, a child of a Jewish mother, or someone of Jewish descent with a connection to Jewish culture or ethnicity and often a combination of these attributes. ... For other uses, see Yahweh (disambiguation). ... Look up Israelite in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Languages Historical Jewish languages Hebrew, Yiddish, Ladino, others Liturgical languages: Hebrew and Aramaic Predominant spoken languages: The vernacular language of the home nation in the Diaspora, significantly including English, Hebrew, Yiddish, and Russian Religions Judaism Related ethnic groups Arabs and other Semitic groups For the Jewish religion, see Judaism. ... Jupiter et Thétis - by Jean Ingres, 1811. ... This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Centuries: 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - 1st century Decades: 80s BC 70s BC 60s BC 50s BC 40s BC - 30s BC - 20s BC 10s BC 0s 10s 20s Years: 36 BC 35 BC 34 BC 33 BC 32 BC 31 BC 30 BC 29 BC 28 BC 27 BC...

Two major philosophical schools of thought that derived from Greek religion and philosophy that became prominent in Rome in the 1st and 2nd century AD was Cynicism and Stoicism which, according to Cora Lutz were “fairly well merged” in the early years of the Roman Empire. Cynicism taught that civilization was corrupt and people needed to break away from it and its trappings and Stoicism taught that one must give up all earthly goods by remaining detached from civilization and help others. Because of their negative views on civilization and of their way of life, in where many of them just wore a dirty cloak, carried a staff, and a coin purse, and slept outdoors, they were the targets of the Roman aristocracy and of the emperor and many were persecuted by the Roman government for being "subversive". The philosopher Lucian attacked the cynics in his book "The Philosophies for Sale" in which he mocked the cynics by stating "First...stripping you of your luxury...I will put a cloak on you...Next I will compel you to undergo pains and hardships, sleeping on the ground, drinking nothing but water...Leading this life you will say that your are happier than the Great King...Frequent the most crowded market place...and in [it] desire to be solitary and uncommunicative..." For other uses, see Rome (disambiguation). ... (1st century BC - 1st century - 2nd century - other centuries) The 1st century was that century which lasted from 1 to 99. ... ( 1st century - 2nd century - 3rd century - other centuries) Events Roman Empire governed by the Five Good Emperors ( 96– 180) – Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius. ... This article is about the current understanding of the word cynicism. ... Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy, founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early third century BC. It proved to be a popular and durable philosophy, with a following throughout Greece and the Roman Empire from its founding until all the schools of philosophy were ordered closed... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... This article is about the current understanding of the word cynicism. ... Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy, founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early third century BC. It proved to be a popular and durable philosophy, with a following throughout Greece and the Roman Empire from its founding until all the schools of philosophy were ordered closed... For other uses, see Lucian (disambiguation). ...

Much of the Roman practices of their religion and philosophy began to dwindle after 312, when the Roman Emperor Galerius legalized Christianity, hitherto brutally suppressed. Soon after his death, Emperor Constantine switched allegiance from Apollo to Christus as his patron, and won the battle of Milvian Bridge in 313. Under Constantine's direction, the Council of Nicaea (325) was held to decide the elements of orthodox Christianity, although Constantine himself was only baptized shortly before his death. Through all this, a few pagans clung to the old Roman religion – even enjoying something of a brief Renaissance under Julian the Apostate (361–63) – and continued to be tolerated until the reign of Theodosius I, who finally outlawed paganism in 390. October 28 — Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine I defeats Maxentius and becomes the only Roman Emperor in the West. ... Galerius Maximianus (c. ... Head of Constantines colossal statue at Musei Capitolini Gaius Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus[1] (February 27, 272–May 22, 337), commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or (among Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic[2] Christians) Saint Constantine, was a Roman Emperor, proclaimed Augustus by his troops on... Ponte Milvio, a bridge on Tiber. ... February - Wtf is up mah cracka??. Constantine issues the Edict of Milan, ending all persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. ... The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day Iznik in Turkey), convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine I in 325, was the first Ecumenical council[1] of the early Christian Church, and most significantly resulted in the first uniform Christian doctrine, called the Nicene Creed. ... Events May 20 - First Council of Nicaea - first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church: The Nicene Creed is formulated, the date of Easter is discussed. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... Flavius Claudius Iulianus (331–June 26, 363), was a Roman Emperor (361–363) of the Constantinian dynasty. ... Events Emperor Ai succeeds Emperor Mu as emperor of China. ... Events Perisapora is destroyed by Emperor Julian. ... An engraving depicting what Theodosius may have looked like, ca. ... Events In response to the murder of his general Butheric, Theodosius I orders a massacre of the inhabitants of Thessalonica. ...

Christianity had originally arisen in the Roman province of Judea, growing out of Judaism, and picking up influences from Greek philosophy as it spread throughout the Roman Empire. Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Relation to other religions Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is a monotheistic[1] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth as presented in the New Testament. ... Map of the southern Levant, c. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ...

See also

• Ancient Rome
• Classical antiquity
• Gallo-Roman culture
• Roman Britain
• Social class in ancient Rome
• Theatre of ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula circa the 9th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. ... Classical antiquity is a broad term for a long period of cultural history centered on the Mediterranean Sea, which begins roughly with the earliest-recorded Greek poetry of Homer (7th century BC), and continues through the rise of Christianity and the fall of the Western Roman Empire (5th century AD... Gallo-Roman figures, found in Ingelheim. ... Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between 43 and 410. ... The toga was the distinctive garb of Romen men, while women wore stolas. ... This article is about theatrical performances in ancient Rome. ...

References

• Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
• Tom Holland, The Last Years of the Roman Republic ISBN 0-385-50313-X
• Ramsay MacMullen, 2000. Romanization in the Time of Augustus (Yale University Press)
• Paul Veyne, editor, 1992. A History of Private Life: I From Pagan Rome to Byzantium (Belknap Press of Harvard University Press)
• Karl Wilhelm Weeber, 2004. Nachtleben im Alten Rom (Primusverlag)
• Karl Wilhelm Weeber, 2005. Die Weinkultur der Römer
• J.H. D'Arms, 1995. Heavy drinking and drunkenness in the Roman world, in O.Murray In Vino Veritas

Edward Gibbon (1737–1794). ... The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, a major literary achievement of Eighteenth Century, was written by the British historian, Edward Gibbon. ... Paul Veyne, born 13 June 1930 in Aix-en-Provence, is a French archaeologist and historian, and a specialist on Ancient Rome. ...

External links

• Ancient Rome
• The Roman Pages
• An interactive Roman map

Education

• Academia Thules offers online courses on Roman History, Philosophy, Archaeology, Religion, Language, Military Arts, Law.

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