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Encyclopedia > DRM (computing)

Digital Rights Management (often abbreviated to DRM) is any of several technologies used by publishers to control access to digital data (such as software, music, movies) and hardware, handling usage restrictions associated with a specific instance of a digital work. The term is often confused with copy protection and technical protection measures (TPM). These two terms refer to technologies that control or restrict the use and access of digital media content on electronic devices with such technologies installed. Copy prevention, also known as copy protection, is any technical measure designed to prevent duplication of information. ... Copy prevention, also known as copy protection, is any technical measure designed to prevent duplication of information. ...


Digital Rights Management is a controversial topic, with advocates arguing that DRM is necessary to allow copyright holders to prevent revenue loss due to unauthorised duplication of their works. As a rhetorical device, critics occasionally refer to the system by alternative names, such as Digital Restrictions Management[1], noting that DRM enables publishers to enforce any arbitrary restrictions they desire, restrictions which may or may not be in accord with publishers' actual legal rights. They argue that DRM allows copyright holders to infringe on existing consumer rights and stifle innovation in software and cultural productions.


Enterprise Digital Rights Management (E-DRM or ERM) refers to the use of DRM technology to control access to corporate documentation (Word, PDF, TIFF, AutoCAD files, etc), rather than consumer playable media. The technology usually requires a Policy Server to authenticate users rights to access certain files. EDRM vendors include Microsoft, Adobe, EMC/Authentica and a number of smaller private companies. Microsoft Office is a suite of productivity programs created or purchased by Microsoft and developed for Microsoft Windows, and Apple Computers Mac OS and Mac OS X operating systems. ... PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... This article is about TIFF, the computer image format. ... AutoCAD 2006 drawing. ...

Contents


Introduction

DRM vendors and publishers coined the term digital rights management to refer to the types of technical measures discussed here, applying it only to digital media (and analog media that has been released in digital form). While analog media loses quality with each copy generation, and often even during normal use, digital media files may be copied an unlimited number of times without any degradation in the quality of subsequent copies. The advent of personal computers, combined with the Internet and popular file sharing tools, have made unauthorised sharing of digital files (often referred to as digital piracy) increasingly common. Bold textDigital media (as opposed to analog media) usually refers to electronic media that work on digital codes. ... An analog or analogue signal is any variable signal continuous in both time and amplitude. ... File sharing is the activity of making files available to other users for download over the Internet, but also over smaller networks. ... The term digital piracy is used to define the un-auhtorised duplication or misuse of content (i. ...


Although technical controls on the reproduction and use of software have been common since the 1980s, the term DRM has come to primarily mean the use of similar measures to control artistic works or content. Beyond the existing restrictions imposed by copyright law, most DRM schemes are able to enforce additional restrictions at the discretion of the content's publisher, which may or may not be the same entity as the copyright holder. The copyright symbol is used to give notice that a work is covered by copyright. ...


DRM may be enforced by numerous technologies, such as digital media player software. Since such implementations can be reverse engineered, resulting in a general move toward the Mandatory Access Control system (as opposed to Discretionary access control) wherein usage restrictions set by an administrator are enforced by software buried in an operating system, by hardware, or both. However, some implementations of this type of DRM are vulnerable to an additional class of attacks, due to a requirement to run on tamper-resistant hardware. In computing, a mandatory access control (MAC) technique protects and contains computer processes, data, and system devices from misuse. ... Discretionary Access Control (DAC) defines basic access control policies to objects in a filesystem. ...


While digital rights management is most commonly used by the film industry, it has found use in other media as well. Many online music stores, such as Apple’s iTunes Music Store, as well as certain e-books producers, have adopted various DRM schemes in recent times. In mid-2005, a number of television producers began demanding implementation of DRM measures to control access to the content of their shows in connection with the popular TiVo system, and its equivalents.[citation needed] The United Kingdom iTunes Music Store. ... An ebook is an electronic (or digital) version of a book. ... TiVo (pronounced tee-voh, IPA: ) is a popular brand of digital video recorder (DVR), a term synonymous with personal video recorder (PVR). ...


Content Scrambling System

An early example of a DRM system is the Content Scrambling System (CSS) employed by the DVD Forum on movie DVDs since circa 1996. The scheme used a simple encryption algorithm, and required device manufacturers to sign a license agreement restricting the inclusion of certain features in their players, such as a digital output which could be used to extract a high-quality digital copy of the movie. Thus, the only consumer hardware capable of decoding DVD movies was controlled by the DVD Forum, restricting the unauthorised use of DVD media until the release of DeCSS by Jon Lech Johansen in 1999. An unsuccessful variant of this scheme is the now-defunct DIVX format. Content-Scrambling System (CSS) is an encryption system used on some DVDs. ... The DVD Forum is an international organization composed primarily of hardware and software companies that use and develop the DVD format. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... DeCSS is a computer program capable of decrypting content on a DVD video disc encrypted using the Content-Scrambling System (CSS). ... Jon Lech Johansen Jon Lech Johansen (born November 18, 1983), also known as DVD Jon, is a Norwegian who is famous for his work on reverse engineering data formats. ... This article is about the video codec DivX. For the pay-per-view DVD system, see DIVX. DivX® is a video codec created by DivX, Inc. ...


Legal enforcement of DRM

Digital Rights Management holds an uncertain legal status in most countries, as the rights of users and producers regarding content are rarely defined clearly enough for legal regulation to be feasible. In most countries, particularly those without a fair use doctrine, users' ability to use copyrighted material is ill-defined and difficult to enforce.


The 2001 European directive on copyright forces member states of the European Union to implement legal protections for DRM. In 2006, the lower house of the French parliament adopted such legislation as part of the controversial DADVSI law, but added that protected DRM techniques should be made interoperable, a move which caused widespread controversy in the United States. The European Union (EU) directive 2001/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society, commonly known as the EU Copyright Directive or short EUCD, is the EUs implementation... 2006 is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Coat of Arms of the French Republic DADVSI is the abbreviation of the French language Loi sur le droit dauteur et les droits voisins dans la société de linformation (in English: law on authors rights and related rights in the information society). It is a bill...


Problems associated with some well-known systems include:

  • DIVX: Proposed as a rental-only system, DIVX required a phone line, and thus inhibited the use of media offline. To relocate a work for which unlimited plays had been purchased (called DIVX Silver), it was necessary to carry the DVD player that first played the disk with it, or manually request that another player be authorised to play that disc. Consumers were denied certain fair use rights in countries with such a doctrine, such as the ability to create compilations of purchased material and to re-sell their copy. DIVX should not be confused with DivX.
  • CSS: Restricts owners' use of purchased content, such as the creation of compilations or full quality reproductions, where such actions would ordinarily be permissible in certain countries as fair use. The system also prevents the user from playing encrypted DVDs on any computer platform, although this restriction can be easily circumvented at the risk of prosecution under laws such as the DMCA. CSS is an example of certificate-based encryption.
  • Product activation: Restricts a product's functionality until it is registered with a publisher by means of a special identification code, often recording information about the specific computer the software it is installed on to prevent its use across multiple machines. Activation schemes may place some users at risk by incorrectly identifying their purchased software as unauthorised. An example of this vulnerability occured in 2003, when Intuit's use of a flawed product activation scheme angered thousands of customers who were denied legitimate use of the product, resulting in a formal apology by Intuit and their cancellation of the system.
  • Digital watermarking: Allows hidden data, such as a unique disc ID, to be placed on the media. The system allows such information as the name and address of the purchaser to be taken at the point of sale, and entered into a database along with the unique disc ID. This system does not prevent copying, but ensures that any copies made of the media will be traceable to a particular copy and perhaps to a particular user. However, the scheme relies largely on authenticating the purchaser's identity at the point of sale, and can be easily circumvented by a customer that provides false information.

This article is about the video codec DivX. For the pay-per-view DVD system, see DIVX. DivX® is a video codec created by DivX, Inc. ... This article is about the video codec DivX. For the pay-per-view DVD system, see DIVX. DivX® is a video codec created by DivX, Inc. ... Content-Scrambling System (CSS) is an encryption system used on some DVDs. ... The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) is a controversial United States copyright law which criminalizes production and dissemination of technology that can circumvent measures taken to protect copyright, not merely infringement of copyright itself, and heightens the penalties for copyright infringement on the Internet. ... Certificate-based encryption is a system in which a certificate authority uses ID_based cryptography to produce a certificate. ... Product activation is a license validation procedure required by some computer software programs. ... Intuit Inc. ... An image with visible digital watermarking. ...

Digital Millennium Copyright Act

The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) is a United States copyright law passed unanimously on May 14, 1988, that criminalizes the production and dissemination of technology that allows users to circumvent copyright protection methods, rendering all forms of DRM-stripping and circumvention software illegal. On 22 May 2001, the European Union passed the EU Copyright Directive, an implementation of the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty that addressed many of the same issues as the DMCA. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) is a controversial United States copyright law. ... The copyright symbol is used to give notice that a work is covered by copyright. ... May 14 is the 134th day of the year in the Gregorian Calendar (135th in leap years). ... 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... May 22 is the 142nd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (143rd in leap years). ... 2001: A Space Odyssey. ... The European Union (EU) directive 2001/29/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 May 2001 on the harmonisation of certain aspects of copyright and related rights in the information society, commonly known as the EU Copyright Directive or short EUCD, is the EUs implementation... 1996 (MCMXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year for the Eradication of Poverty. ... The WIPO Copyright Treaty, adopted by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in 1996, provides additional protections for copyright deemed necessary in the modern information era. ...


The DMCA was largely ineffective in enforcing DRM systems, as software allowing users to circumvent copyright restrictions remains readily available over the Internet. However, the Act has been used to restrict the spread of such software by limiting its distribution and development, as in the case of DeCSS. DeCSS is a computer program capable of decrypting content on a DVD video disc encrypted using the Content-Scrambling System (CSS). ...


The arrest of Russian programmer Dmitry Sklyarov in 2001, for alleged infringement of the DMCA, was a highly publicised example of the law's use in preventing the further development of anti-DRM measures. While working for Elcomsoft, he developed The Advanced eBook Processor, an application that allowed authorised users to strip usage restriction information from protected e-books. Sklyarov was arrested in the United States after presenting a speech at DEF CON, and subsequently spent several months in jail. The DMCA has also been cited as detrimental to legitimate users, such as students of cryptanalysis, and security professionals such as Niels Ferguson, who declined to publish security information about certain Intel microprocessors over concerns for his arrest under the DMCA. Dmitry Sklyarov (Дмитрий Скляров) (born December 18, 1974) is a Russian computer programmer best known for his 2001 run-in with American law enforcement over software copyright restrictions. ... ElcomSoft is a Russian computer software company specialising in computer security and data recovery applications and spamware. ... It has been suggested that Digital books be merged into this article or section. ... DEF CON is the worlds largest annual hacker convention, held every year in Las Vegas, Nevada. ... Cryptanalysis (from the Greek kryptós, hidden, and analýein, to loosen or to untie) is the study of methods for obtaining the meaning of encrypted information, without access to the secret information which is normally required to do so. ... Niels Ferguson is a Dutch cryptographic engineer and consultant. ... Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC, SEHK: 4335), founded in 1968 as Integrated Electronics Corporation, is an American multinational corporation that is best known for designing and manufacturing microprocessors and specialized integrated circuits. ...


Other copyright implications

While DRM systems are ostensibly designed to protect an owner's right to control copying, after a statutorily-defined period of time any copyrighted work becomes part of the public domain for anyone to use freely. DRM systems currently employed are not time limited in this way, and although it would be possible to create such a system (under compulsory escrow agreements, for example), there is currently no mechanism to remove the copy control systems embedded into works once the copyright term expires and they enter the public domain. The public domain comprises the body of all creative works and other knowledge—writing, artwork, music, science, inventions, and others—in which no person or organization has any proprietary interest. ... Escrow is a legal arrangement whereby an asset (often money, but sometimes other property such as art, a deed of title, website, or software source code) is delivered to a third party (called an escrow agent) to be held in trust pending a contingency or the fulfillment of a condition...


Furthermore, copyright law does not restrict the resale of copyrighted works (provided those copies were made by or with the permission of the copyright holder), so it is perfectly legal to resell a copyrighted work provided a copy is not retained by the seller—a doctrine known as the first-sale doctrine in the US, which applies equally in most other countries under various names. Similarly, some forms of copying are permitted under copyright law, under the doctrine of fair use (US) or fair dealing (many other countries). DRM technology restricts or prevents the purchaser of copyrighted material from exercising their legal rights in these respects. The first-sale doctrine is an exception to copyright codified in the US Copyright Act, section 109. ... Fair use is a doctrine in United States copyright law that allows limited use of copyrighted material without requiring permission from the rights holders, such as use for scholarship or review. ... Fair dealing is a doctrine of limitations and exceptions to copyright which is found in many of the common law jurisdictions of the Commonwealth of Nations. ...


Moreover, the scope of legal rights cannot, in principle, be fully encoded in technical access/copying restrictions. For example, a photograph generally falls under the copyright of its photographer, and may not be reproduced in an unlimited way by other persons. A photographer wishing to enforce her copyright might attach some DRM codes to a digital version of her photograph that indicate "may not be copied." However, the photographer might subsequently sign an agreement with another party authorizing such duplication (either for monetary payment, or to serve some other public or private purpose). Under law, the moment such an agreement is signed, copying (under the terms set forth) becomes legal; but the DRM software cannot know that people with pens affixed their name to the contract, and thereby changed legalities.


An oft-cited example of DRM overreach is Adobe Systems' release in 2000 of a public domain work, Lewis Carroll's Alice in Wonderland, with DRM controls asserting that "this book cannot be read aloud" and so disabling use of the text-to-speech feature normally available in Adobe's eBook Reader. Adobe Systems (NASDAQ: ADBE) (LSE: ABS) is an American computer software company headquartered in San Jose, California that was founded in December 1982 by John Warnock and Charles Geschke. ... Lewis Carroll. ...


DRM has been used by organizations such as the British Library in its secure electronic delivery service to permit worldwide access to substantial numbers of rare (and in many cases unique) documents which, for legal reasons, were previously only available to authorized individuals actually visiting the Library's document centre at Boston Spa in England. This is an interesting case where DRM has actually increased public access to restricted material rather than diminished it. British Library Ossulston St entrance, with distinctive red logo. ... An alternative to localized repositories of physically secured documents Secure electronic delivery services such as that opened in 2003 by The British Library Document Supply Centre at Boston Spa, allow extended access to copyright material for which access rights have not been granted for open access over the Internet...


An early example of a DRM scheme is one that is currently being used on textbooks required in some American Dental Schools including New York University College of Dentistry. The textbooks are available only on DVD and students are forced to purchase the DVD. The DVDs are readable only on an authorized computer and only for a limited time, after which the DVD "expires" and the information in the "DVD book" becomes unavailable. Some of these books are not available on paper at all.[2] The New York University College of Dentistry is one of 14 schools and divisions at New York University // History (NYUCD) was founded in 1865 as the New York College of Dentistry. ...


DRM advocates

Some DRM advocates have taken the position that the operational contexts and design goals of DRM, security, software engineering and cryptography are sufficiently well understood that it is already possible to achieve the desired ends without causing unrelated problems for users or their computers.


Others have taken the position that creators of digital works should have the power to control the distribution or replication of copies of their works, and to assign limited control over such copies. Without this power, they argue, there will be a chilling effect on creative efforts in the digital space. This has been and remains the underlying argument for copyright. DRM is one means by which creators of digital works may obtain this power.


A similar view states that DRM's advent is the first time large-scale digital distribution has been reasonably achievable, which proponents claim to be a benefit both to content creators and their customers that far outweighs the typical problems that arise. This argument cannot be applied to physical media, however. Digital distribution (Also known as digital delivery) is the principle of providing digital information or content over the Internet, either in the form of products or services. ...


Furthermore, advocates of DRM believe that its opponents advocate the rights of hardware and media owners, but at the expense of the privileges of artists and their designated copyright holders. Consumers of hardware and media voluntarily and knowingly agree to the grant of limited use of the content exhibited using their physical media.


DRM opponents

Many organizations, prominent individuals, and computer scientists are already opposed to DRM in its various currently proposed forms. Two notable opponents are John Walker in his article, The Digital imprimatur: How big brother and big media can put the Internet genie back in the bottle[3], and Richard Stallman in his article/story The Right to Read and in public statements "DRM is an example of a malicious feature - a feature designed to hurt the user of the software, and therefore, it's something for which there can never be toleration"[4]. Professor Ross Anderson of Cambridge University heads a British organization which opposes DRM and similar efforts in the UK. John Walker is a computer programmer and the founder of the CAD software company Autodesk, and co-author of AutoCAD. Before Autodesk, John founded a hardware integration manufacturing company called Marinchip. ... Digital imprimatur is a term widely associated with John Walker, due to his article of the same name. ... Richard Matthew Stallman (frequently abbreviated to RMS) (born March 16, 1953) is the founder of the free software movement, the GNU Project, and the Free Software Foundation. ... Ross J. Anderson is a researcher, writer, and industry consultant in security engineering. ...


The Electronic Frontier Foundation and similar civil rights organizations, including http://boycott-riaa.com and http://www.ihatedrm.com, also hold positions which are characterized as opposed to DRM. EFF Logo The EFF uses the blue ribbon as symbolism for their Free Speech defense. ... Civil rights or positive rights are those legal rights retained by citizens and protected by the government. ...


The Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure criticizes DRM's impact as a trade barrier from a free market perspective. The Foundation for a Free Information Infrastructure or FFII is a lobbying association based in Munich, Germany. ... A trade barrier is general term that describes any government policy or regulation that restricts international trade, the barriers can take many forms, including: Import duties Import licenses Export licenses Quotas Tariffs Subsidies Non-tariff barriers to trade Most trade barriers work on the same principle: the imposition of some... A free market is an idealized market, where all economic decisions and actions by individuals regarding transfer of money, goods, and services are voluntary, and are therefore devoid of coercion and theft (some definitions of coercion are inclusive of theft). Colloquially and loosely, a free market economy is an economy...


The first draft of the GNU General Public License version 3, released by the Free Software Foundation, prohibits using DRM to restrict free redistribution and modification of works covered by the license, and has a clause stating that the license's provisions shall be interpreted as disfavoring usage of DRM. Also, in May 2006, FSF launched a "Defective by Design" campaign against DRM. The GNU logo Wikisource has original text related to this article: GNU General Public License The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or simply GPL) is a widely used free software license, originally written by Richard Stallman for the GNU project. ... The Free Software Foundation logo The Free Software Foundation (FSF) is a non-profit organization founded in October 1985 by Richard Stallman to support the free software movement (free as in freedom), and in particular the GNU project. ... Defective by Design is a anti-DRM initiative by Free Software Foundation. ...


Free Creations has published a license against DRM: Against DRM 2.0.


In France, in order to inform the consumers about the DRM threat, the citizen group StopDRM is regularly organizing protests in general stores (like Virgin or La Fnac) in different cities.


The use of DRM may also be a barrier to future historians, since technologies designed to permit data to be read only on particular machines may well make future data recovery impossible - see Digital Revolution. This argument connects the issue of DRM with that of asset management and archive technology. The Digital Revolution describes the effects of rapid drop in cost and ongoing improvement of digital devices such as computers replacing or emulating analog devices, enabling former unthinkable innovations like the World Wide Web (WWW). ...


DRM opponents argue that presence of DRM infringes private property rights and criminalizes a range of normal user activities. A DRM component would take control over the rest of the user's device which they rightfully own (for example MP3 player) and restricts how it may act, regardless of the user's wishes (for example, preventing the user from copying a song). All forms of DRM depend on the device imposing restrictions that cannot be legally disabled or modified by the user. In other words, the user has no choice. This page deals with property as ownership rights. ... Main Entry: crim·i·nal·ize Pronunciation: kri-m&-n&l-Iz, krim-n&-lIz Function: transitive verb Inflected Form(s): -ized; -iz·ing to make illegal : OUTLAW; also : to turn into or treat as a criminal - crim·i·nal·i·za·tion /kri-m&-n&l-&-zA-sh&n... A digital audio player (DAP) is a device that stores, organizes and plays digital music files. ...


DRM and Internet music

Most internet music stores employ DRM to restrict the usage of music purchased and downloaded online. There are many options for consumers buying digital music over the internet, in terms of both stores and purchase options. Two examples of music stores and their functionality follow:

  • The iTunes Music Store, the industry leader, allows users to purchase a track online for under a dollar, to burn that song to an unlimited number of CDs, and transfer it to an unlimited number of iPods. The purchased music files are encoded as AAC, a format supported by iPods, and DRM is applied through FairPlay. Many music devices are not compatible with the AAC format, and only the iPod itself can play FairPlay-encoded files. Apple also reserves the right to alter its DRM restrictions on the music a user has downloaded at any time. For example, Apple recently decided to restrict the number of times a user can copy a playlist from ten to seven. Songs can be played on only five computers at a time, and users cannot edit or sample the songs they purchased. Despite these restrictions, the iTMS DRM is often seen as lenient, and can be easily bypassed through programs such as Hymn. Apple provides iTunes software for copying the downloaded music to iPods in AAC format or to conventional music CD (CDDA format). No copy restrictions are recorded onto the CD and many programs can read and convert music from CD to other music formats, such as MP3 used by competing digital music players.
  • Napster music store, which offers a subscription based approach to DRM alongside permanent purchases. Users of the subscription service can download and stream an unlimited amount of music encoded to Windows Media Audio (WMA) while subscribed to the service. But as soon as the user misses a payment the service renders all music downloaded unusable. Napster also charges users who wish to use the music on their portable device an additional $5 per month. Furthermore, Napster requires users to pay an additional $.99 per each track to burn a track to CD or to listen to the track after the subscription expires. Songs bought through Napster can be played on players carrying the Microsoft PlaysForSure logo (notably excluding iPod players).
  • CryptoGateway Software Inc., which develops global scale declarative security and identity management technology, offers services for content publishers/authors regarding DRM media player, digital media processing, hosting and sale on its peer to peer dynamic virtual private network.

The various services are currently not interoperable, though those that use the same DRM scheme (for instance the various Windows Media DRM stores, which include Napster) all provide songs that can be played side by side through the same program. Almost all stores require client software of some sort to be downloaded, and some also need plug-ins. Several colleges and universities, for example Princeton, have made arrangements with assorted Internet music suppliers to provide access (typically DRM protected) to music files for their students, to less than univerasl popularity, sometimes making payments from student activity fee funds. (See Nick Timeros's article in the WSJ: Free Legal, And Ignored) One of the problems is that the music becomes unplayable after leaving school, unless the student continues to pay individually. Another is that few of these vendors are compatible with the most common portable music player, the Apple iPod. The United Kingdom iTunes Music Store. ... A grayscale fourth-generation iPod with earphones. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... FairPlay is a Digital rights management (DRM) technology created by Apple Computer, built in to the QuickTime multimedia technology and used by the iPod, iTunes, and the iTunes Music Store. ... FairPlay is a Digital rights management (DRM) technology created by Apple Computer, built in to the QuickTime multimedia technology and used by the iPod, iTunes, and the iTunes Music Store. ... hymn (Hear Your Music aNywhere) is a piece of computer software, and the successor to the PlayFair program. ... Napster, Inc. ... Windows Media Audio (WMA) is a proprietary compressed audio file format developed by Microsoft. ... PlaysForSure is a marketing certification given by Microsoft to portable hardware media players that have been verified to work with Microsoft Windows, specifically Windows XP and newer releases. ... A plugin (or plug-in) is a computer program that can, or must, interact with another program to provide a certain, usually very specific, function. ... In the United States Princeton is the name of several places in the United States of America: Princeton, Florida Princeton, Illinois Princeton, Indiana Princeton, Iowa Princeton, Kansas Princeton, Kentucky Princeton, Louisiana Princeton, Maine Princeton, Massachusetts Princeton, Minnesota Princeton, Missouri Princeton, New Jersey Princeton, North Carolina Princeton, South Carolina Princeton, Texas...


DRM and Libraries

Denver Public, Cuyahoga County and San José Public libraries join Cleveland Public Library, King County Library System, Public Library of Youngstown & Mahoning County, Wright Memorial Public Library and many others who enable the downloading of best-selling e-book 24/7 from their library website using the OverDrive service. The service features a growing collection of best-selling e-book from popular authors and publishers including HarperCollins, Time Warner, McGraw-Hill, Zondervan, Scholastic, John Wiley and Sons, and more. These audio books are downloadable in the WMA DRM format.[5] Alternative meanings: Library (computer science), Library (biology) Modern-style library In its traditional sense, a library is a collection of books and periodicals. ...


See also: Digital distribution, Perpetual access Digital distribution (Also known as digital delivery) is the principle of providing digital information or content over the Internet, either in the form of products or services. ... Perpetual Access refers to the right to ongoing access to electronic materials. ...


Controversies, consequences, and examples

A parodied Home Taping is Killing Music logo from an anti-DRM point of view.
Enlarge
A parodied Home Taping is Killing Music logo from an anti-DRM point of view.

Several DRM schemes have been implemented. Many see them as "abuse" of copyright (often called eSlavery in Europe); DRM proponents have seen them as a "reasonable balance of consumer concerns and artist rights." Image File history File links DRM_is_killing_music. ... Image File history File links DRM_is_killing_music. ... The original logo. ... The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ...


Examples include:

  • Digital imprimatur
  • Inclusion of commercials on the "unskippable track" on DVDs reserved for the copyright notice;
  • Using the DMCA to restrict access to items that do not qualify for copyright, such as garage door openers and printer ink cartridges;
  • Adding restrictions on text-to-speech conversion in the EULA of e-books;
  • BBC IMP trial for downloads of DRM-encrypted audio and video files; uses the Kontiki peer to peer file distribution system. Allows no user control of the background up and downloading, leading to considerable slowing of user PCs and potential exhaustion of allowed data transfers without warning due to the nature of peer to peer type operations, with only the option to shut down the user's computer or disconnect from the Internet. BBC content is time-limited and will only play on the machine to which it was downloaded or an officially authenticated device participating in Microsoft's DRM scheme.
  • Sky's 'Sky By Broadband' scheme also uses Kontiki with similar results.
  • Using Copy Control schemes to thwart the existing statutory and common law exceptions to copyright holder control (such as fair use), as for instance in regional coding of media (such as in DVDs);
  • The possibility of dominant DRM-inclusive recording and playback technology being used uncritically by users unaware of the dangers and consequences thereof, and potentially later locking them out of their own creations, as with SCMS in consumer-grade DAT equipment;
  • Preventing academic publication and distribution of information relating to flaws in computer security in the absence of the permission of the creators of said technologies;
  • Silencing individuals who have found serious flaws in software used in electronic voting.[6]
  • Restriction of medical records and personal financial information using DRM to protect consumer rights. Insurers, lawyers and loan companies have strongly objected to the use of these technologies to prevent patient, hospital and practitioner records being more freely accessible due to copy and forward restriction applied to patient or customer records.
  • As of 2005, in American dental schools students are required to purchase textbooks on DVD. The DVDs are readable only on an authorized computer and only for a limited time, after which the DVD expires and the information in the "DVD book" becomes unreadable. Some of these books are not available on paper at all. The New York Association of Copyright Stakeholders have protested and documented this at http://fairuse.nylxs.com with the help of NYLXS.
  • Stopping or making archival of the content, even allowed such like in libraries, hard or impossible to do due to practical and technical reasons - especially when considering that the content should still be accessible even if the publisher disappears (bankruptcies etc).
  • TiVo 7.2 OS adds content access restrictions, blocks transfers, and auto-deletes some shows
  • The 2005 Sony CD copy protection scandal
  • Aesthetic objections to onscreen DRM threats interfering with relaxing and watching a movie.
  • The Swedish Pirate Party wants to outlaw most forms of DRM.
  • The legal inability to disable DRM restrictions, even if they "threaten critical infrastructure and potentially endanger lives" [7]
  • Many DRM systems restrict playback to a single device and, to date, no provider has offered to renew this licence when the device is upgraded.

Digital imprimatur is a term widely associated with John Walker, due to his article of the same name. ... The user operation prohibition (abbreviated UOP) is a form of digital rights management used on video DVD discs. ... A garage door opener is a motorized device that opens and closes garage doors. ... An ink cartridge is a replaceable component of an inkjet printer that contains the ink that is spread on paper during printing. ... A software license is a type of proprietary or gratiuitious license as well as a memorandum of contract between a producer and a user of computer software — sometimes called an End User License Agreement (EULA) — that specifies the perimeters of the permission granted by the owner to the user. ... It has been suggested that Digital books be merged into this article or section. ... The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC, sometimes also known as the Beeb or Auntie) is the largest broadcasting corporation in the world, founded in 1922. ... British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB — formerly two companies, Sky and B.S.B.) is a company that operates Sky Digital, the most popular subscription television service in the UK and Ireland. ... Copy control logo Copy Control is the name of a copy protection system used on recent EMI digital audio disc releases in some regions. ... Fair use is a doctrine in United States copyright law that allows limited use of copyrighted material without requiring permission from the rights holders, such as use for scholarship or review. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Serial Copy Management System or SCMS was created in response to the digital audio tape (DAT) invention, in order to prevent DAT recorders from making second-generation or serial copies. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Computer security is a field of computer science concerned with the control of risks related to computer use. ... Electronic voting machine used in all Brazilian elections and plebiscites. ... Medical records refer to records, either in paper or electronic form, of the results of medical tests, diagnoses and treatments for individuals. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... NYLXS - The New York Free Software - GNU/Linux Scene Founded in late 2001, NYLXS is one of New York Citys more proactive Free Software/GNU Linux education groups. ... TiVo (pronounced tee-voh, IPA: ) is a popular brand of digital video recorder (DVR), a term synonymous with personal video recorder (PVR). ... The 2005 Sony CD copy protection scandal is a public scandal relating to copy protection software known as Extended Copy Protection (XCP), created by First 4 Internet and used by the media company Sony BMG Music Entertainment (frequently referred to as Sony) on audio CDs. ... The Pirate Party (Swedish: Piratpartiet) is a political party in Sweden. ...

Copyright law vs. particular techniques

Copyright law has been defined in terms of general definitions of infringement in any concrete medium. This classic approach focused such law on whether or not there is infringement, rather than focus on particular engineering techniques. Legislators have in several instances chosen not to prohibit new technologies (for example piano rolls, radio broadcasting, and audio tape recording in both Congress and the Supreme Court in the US). Critics of DRM assert that detecting and prosecuting infringement within the social and legal system avoids a legacy of outlawing generic, universal, popular, widespread, useful, and possibly uncontrollable in any case engineering techniques in response to specific misuses.


European dialogues on DRM concerns

In Europe, there are several dialog activities that are uncharacterized by its consensus-building intention: World map showing Europe Political map Europe is one of the seven continents of Earth which, in this case, is more a cultural and political distinction than a physiographic one, leading to various perspectives about Europes borders. ...

  • Workshop on Digital Rights Management of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), January 2001. [1]
  • Participative preparation of the European Committee for Standardization/Information Society Standardisation System (CEN/ISSS) DRM Report, 2003 (finished). [2]
  • DRM Workshops of DG Information Society, European Commission (finished), and the work of the DRM working groups (finished), as well as the work of the High Level Group on DRM (ongoing). [3]
  • Consultation process of the European Commission, DG Internal Market, on the Communication COM(2004)261 by the European Commission on "Management of Copyright and Related Rights" (closed). [4]
  • The INDICARE project is an ongoing dialogue on consumer acceptability of DRM solutions in Europe. It is an open and neutral platform for exchange of facts and opinions, mainly based on articles by authors from science and practice.
  • The AXMEDIS project is a European Commission Integrated Project of the FP6. The main goal of AXMEDIS is atomating the content production, protection and distribution, reducing the related costs and supporting DRM at both B2B and B2C areas harmonising them.

The European Community is expected to produce a recommendation on DRM in 2006, phasing out the use of levies (compensation to rights holders charged on media sales for lost revenue due to unauthorized copying) given the advances in DRM/TPM technology. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... CEN, the European Committee for Standardization, was founded in 1961 by the national standard bodies in the European Economic Community and EFTA countries. ... The European Commission (formally the Commission of the European Communities) is the executive body of the European Union. ... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... // Goal The overall goal of INDICARE (The INformed DIalogue about Consumer Acceptability of DRM Solutions in Europe) is to raise awareness, help to reconcile heterogeneous interests of multiple players, and to support the emergence of a common European position with regard to consumer and user issues of Digital Rights Management... Category: ... The European Community (EC), most important of three European Communities, was originally founded on March 25, 1957 by the signing of the Treaty of Rome under the name of European Economic Community. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Look up Levy on Wiktionary, the free dictionary Levy may refer to: forced labor; see conscription or national service a form of tax A misspelling of Levi A misspelling of levee See List of people by name: Lev for people named Levy. ...


Inclusion within GNU General Public License version 3

The first proposed draft of the GPLv3 (released on 2006-01-16) contains language intended to neutralize the harmful effects of DRM (intereference with users' rights to examine, alter, and redistribute) when implemented using GPL'd software. Although the draft in no way prohibits the use of GPL'd code in DRM systems, it does require binaries (or source code) to be distributed not only with source code, but also with the necessary cryptographic keys and other required mechanisms needed to modify the software and still have it interoperate. It also contains language intended to exclude GPL'd DRM code from the scope of the DMCA (and similar statutes elsewhere) anti-circumvention provisions. Image File history File links Wikinews-logo. ... Wikinews is a free-content news source and a project of the Wikimedia Foundation. ... The GNU logo Wikisource has original text related to this article: GNU General Public License The GNU General Public License (GNU GPL or simply GPL) is a widely used free software license, originally written by Richard Stallman for the GNU project. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... January 16 is the 16th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... A key is a piece of information that controls the operation of a cryptography algorithm. ... The Digital Millennium Copyright Act (DMCA) is a controversial United States copyright law which criminalizes production and dissemination of technology that can circumvent measures taken to protect copyright, not merely infringement of copyright itself, and heightens the penalties for copyright infringement on the Internet. ... Anti-Circumvention law has made the circumvention of some technological barriers to copying intellectual property illegal. ...


DRM systems and implementations

Examples of existing "digital rights management" and "copy protection" systems:

Adobe Systems (NASDAQ: ADBE) (LSE: ABS) is an American computer software company headquartered in San Jose, California that was founded in December 1982 by John Warnock and Charles Geschke. ... PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... The Advanced Access Content System (AACS) is a standard for content distribution and digital rights management, which will allow restricting access to and copying of the next generation of optical discs and DVDs. ... Blu-ray discs Blu-ray Disc is a next-generation optical disc format jointly developed by a group of leading consumer electronics and PC companies called the Blu_ray Disc Association (BDA), which succeeds the Blu_ray Disc Founders (BDF). ... HD DVD (High Density Digital Versatile Disc or High Definition Digital Video Disc) is a digital optical media format which can hold high definition video or other data. ... Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC, SEHK: 4335), founded in 1968 as Integrated Electronics Corporation, is an American multinational corporation that is best known for designing and manufacturing microprocessors and specialized integrated circuits. ... When used as a specific technical term used to distinguish from standard definition television in the context of High Definition Television (HDTV) the term high definition has become associated with a particular set of technical specifications or with the values of certain parameters within such specifications. ... Authena is devoted to open source digital rights management (DRM). ... Authentica is a Lexington, Massachusetts startup dealing in Digital Rights Management. ... EMC Corporation NYSE: EMC is a manufacturer of software and systems for information management and storage. ... Microsoft Office is a suite of productivity programs created or purchased by Microsoft and developed for Microsoft Windows, and Apple Computers Mac OS and Mac OS X operating systems. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Category: ... BD+ is the DRM scheme embedded in every Blu-ray Disc. ... In the operation of some cryptosystems, usually public key infrastructures (PKIs), a certificate revocation list (CRL) is a list of certificates (more accurately: their serial numbers) which have been revoked, are no longer valid, and should not be relied upon by any system user. ... CPRM or Content Protection for Recordable Media is a mechanism for controlling the copying, moving and deletion of digital media on a host device, such as a personal computer, or other digital player. ... A 512 MB SD Card Secure Digital (SD) is a flash memory (non volatile) memory card format used in portable devices, including digital cameras and handheld computers. ... The Flaming Lips CD and DVD release of Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots, one of the first major albums to employ the DVD-Audio format DVD-Audio is a format for delivering high-fidelity audio content on a DVD. It offers many channels (from mono to 5. ... The DVD-Audio logo. ... The open mobile terminal platform (OMTP) is a standard created by the OMTP group for providing a common application framework for mobile telephones. ... DTCP, or Digital Transmission Content Protection, which was issued by DTLA (Digital Transmission Licensing Administrator) to protect the multimedia distribution in the Digital Home. ... High-Bandwidth Digital Content Protection (HDCP) is a form of digital restrictions management (DRM) developed by the Intel Corporation to control digital audio and video content as it travels across Digital Visual Interface (DVI) or High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) connections. ... The French iTunes law is the nickname given by some Anglo-American news sources to the DADVSI act. ... FairPlay is a Digital rights management (DRM) technology created by Apple Computer, built in to the QuickTime multimedia technology and used by the iPod, iTunes, and the iTunes Music Store. ... The United Kingdom iTunes Music Store. ... key2audio is a copy protection system for Audio CDs, developed by Sony DADC. A hidden signature applied to the disc during glass master manufacturing prevents playback on PC/MAC and thereby prevents copying or track ripping. ... The Sony BMG Music Entertainment logo. ... Macrovision is a company that creates electronic copy prevention schemes, established in 1983. ... MediaMax CD-3 is a software package created by SunnComm and sold as a form of copy protection for compact discs. ... The Sony BMG Music Entertainment logo. ... OMA DRM is a DRM system invented by the Open Mobile Alliance whose members represent the entire value chain, including mobile phone manufacturers (e. ... The Open Mobile Alliance (OMA) is a standards body which develops open standards for the mobile industry. ... RealNetworks NASDAQ: RNWK is a provider of Internet media delivery software and services based in Seattle, United States. ... Digital watermarking is a technique which allows to add hidden copyright or other verification messages to digital audio, video, or image signals and documents. ... SealedMedia is a Los Gatos, California Independent software vendor offering Digital Rights Management solutions to secure and track sensitive documents and emails for enterprises and government agencies. ... The Serial Copy Management System or SCMS was created in response to the digital audio tape (DAT) invention, in order to prevent DAT recorders from making second-generation or serial copies. ... This article or section needs additional references or sources. ... Sony Connect The Connect Music Store is Sonys music store built within the SonicStage music management application for Microsoft Windows-based personal computers. ... OpenMG is a SDMI-compliant digital rights management scheme by Sony. ... ATRAC (Adaptive TRansform Acoustic Coding) is a proprietary audio compression algorithm used to store information on Minidiscs and other Sony-branded audio players. ... A rootkit is a set of software tools intended to conceal running processes, files or system data, thereby helping an intruder to maintain access to a system whilst avoiding detection. ... The term EFF may refer to: The Election Fighting Fund, a fund which the NUWSS set up to raise money for the early Labour Party during the early 1910s. ... A boycott is an action undertaken to abstain from using, buying, or dealing with someone or some organisation as an expression of protest or as a means of coercion. ... Steam is a content delivery, digital rights management and multiplayer system developed by the Valve Corporation. ... Valve Software is a Bellevue, Washington-based video game developer made famous by its first product, Half-Life, which was released in November 1998. ... Half-Life 2 is a science fiction first-person shooter computer game and the sequel to Half-Life, developed by Valve Corporation. ... ... Windows Media DRM is a digital rights management service for the Windows Media platform. ... Windows Media Audio (WMA) is a proprietary compressed audio file format developed by Microsoft. ... Windows Media Video (WMV) is a generic name for the set of proprietary streaming video technologies developed by Microsoft. ... Windows Media Player is a proprietary software digital media player and media library application developed by Microsoft that is used for playing audio, video and images on personal computers running the Microsoft Windows operating system, as well as on Pocket PC and Windows Mobile-based devices. ... Windows Rights Management Services (RMS) is a Microsoft Windows technology included in Windows Server 2003 and Windows Vista that is a form of digital rights management for corporate email, documents, and intranet web pages. ... XCP-Aurora Extended Copy Protection (XCP) is a software package developed by the British company First 4 Internet and sold as a copy protection or digital rights management (DRM) scheme for compact discs. ... The Sony BMG Music Entertainment logo. ...

Related concepts

To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Copyright symbol. ... Copy prevention, also known as copy protection, is any technical measure designed to prevent duplication of information. ... A DRM helmet is a hypothetical device that prevents the wearer from viewing or listening to media for which they have not obtained the publishers permission. ... XrML is the eXtensible Rights Markup Language which has also been standardized as the Rights Expression Language (REL) for MPEG-21. ... The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ... Trusted Computing (TC) refers to a technology developed and promoted by the Trusted Computing Group (TCG). ... ODRL (Open Digital Rights Language) is an XML-based standard Rights Expression Language (REL) used in Digital Rights Management systems and open content management systems. ... Data rooms are used in many different types of transaction where the vendor (in the case of a property, M&A or share sale) or the authority (in the case of a PFI/PPP project) wishes to disclose a large amount of confidential data to proposed bidders typically during the... The Street Performer Protocol (SPP) is a way of encouraging the creation of creative works and intellectual property in the public domain, described by the cryptographers John Kelsey and Bruce Schneier of Counterpane Systems (although the underlying idea is much older). ... VCL (Voluntary Collective Licensing) is also a theoretical solution for the problem of piracy which would harness the power of P2P technologies. ... Listen to this article · (info) This audio file was created from an article revision dated 2006-01-11, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. ... Smart contracts are protocols, usually associated with user interfaces, that embed or emulate contractual clauses or logic for the purpose of facilitating, verifying, or enforcing the performance of a contract. ...

References

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
Digital Rights Management
  1. ^ Stallman, Richard. Some Confusing or Loaded Words and Phrases that are Worth Avoiding. Retrieved on 2006-06-26.
  2. ^ Fleisher, Lisa (April 2002). DVD texts make lukewarm debut at NYU. Washington Square News.
  3. ^ Walker, John (September 13, 2003). The Digital Imprimatur: How big brother and big media can put the Internet genie back in the bottle..
  4. ^ O'Riordan, Ciaran (January 16 2006). Transcript of Opening session of first international GPLv3 conference.
  5. ^ OverDrive (December 16, 2003). Top Libraries Select OverDrive eBook System.
  6. ^ Online Policy Group v. Diebold, Inc.. Electronic Frontier Foundation.
  7. ^ Felten, Ed (March 8, 2006). RIAA Says Future DRM Might “Threaten Critical Infrastructure and Potentially Endanger Lives”.

Image File history File links Wikiquote-logo-en. ... Wikiquote logo Wikiquote is a sister project of Wikipedia, using the same MediaWiki software. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... June 26 is the 177th day of the year (178th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 188 days remaining. ...

Further reading

  • Lawrence Lessig's Free Culture, published by Basic Books in 2004, is available for free download in PDF format. The book is a legal and social history of copyright. Lessig is well known, in part, for arguing recent landmark cases on copyright law. A Professor of law at Stanford University, Lessig writes for an educated lay audience, including for non-lawyers. He is, for the most part, an opponent of DRM techologies.
  • Eberhard Becker, Willms Buhse, Dirk Günnewig, Niels Rump: Digital Rights Management - Technological, Economic, Legal and Political Aspects. An 800 page compendium from 60 different authors on DRM.
  • Bound by Law, by James Boyle et al, at Duke Universtiy Law School (http://www.law.duke.edu/cspd/comics/zoomcomic.html), a comic book treatment of the US Fair Use doctrine (with some relevance to other jurisdictions, for example in the Commonwealth usually called Fair Dealing). that is license fee free, under stature and common law precedent, use of copyrighted material without permission from the copyright holder.
  • DRM on Open Platforms - A paper by Hagai Bar-El and Yoav Weiss on ways to augment open platforms to make them suitable for DRM implementations.

Lawrence Lessig Lawrence Lessig (born June 3, 1961) is an American academic. ... The book cover Free Culture: How Big Media Uses Technology and the Law to Lock Down Culture and Control Creativity (2004) is a book by law professor Lawrence Lessig that was released on the Internet under the Creative Commons Attribution/Non-commercial license (by-nc 1. ... Basic Books is a book publisher founded in 1952. ... Stanford redirects here. ... james boyle is the most important person in american history he went there in 1994 and 2001 he changed the way the country ran ...

External links

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is one of the specialized agencies of the United Nations, and has as its core objectives the promotion of creative intellectual activity and the facilitation of the transfer of technology related to intellectual property to the developing countries in order to accelerate economic, social... September 30 is the 273rd day of the year (274th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar, with 92 days remaining. ... 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Shuman Ghosemajumder is the co-founder and former CEO of Anadas Consulting, a Canadian software development firm. ... The MIT Sloan School of Management is one of the five schools of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, located in Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. It is one of the worlds leading business schools, conducting research and teaching in finance, entrepreneurship, marketing, strategic management, economics, organizational behavior, operations management, supply chain... HBS, as seen from across the Charles River. ... Cory Doctorow at the 63rd World Science Fiction Convention in Glasgow, August 2005 Cory Doctorow (born July 17, 1971) is a blogger, journalist and science fiction author in favor of liberalizing copyright laws, and a proponent of Creative Commons. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Edward William Felten (born March 25, 1963) is a professor of computer science and public affairs at Princeton University. ... February 14 is the 45th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Wikia logo, based on the old Wikicities logo by Christoph Struber. ...

Software that removes DRM

  • DeCSS – Decrypts CSS from DVDs
  • DVD Decrypter – Comprehensive suite of DVD decrypting tools
  • Hymn, PlayFair – Removes iTunes Music Store's DRM
  • FreeMe, Unfuck, DRM2WMV and DRMDBG for WMA and WMV files
  • Most Anti-Virus products, such as Symantec Norton AntiVirus, will remove Sony's XCP DRM

DeCSS is a computer program capable of decrypting content on a DVD video disc encrypted using the Content-Scrambling System (CSS). ... DVD Decrypter is a freeware program that can create backup disc images of the DVD-Video structure of DVDs. ... hymn (Hear Your Music aNywhere) is a piece of computer software, and the successor to the PlayFair program. ... The Playfair system was invented by Charles Wheatstone, first described in 1854. ... The United Kingdom iTunes Music Store. ... FairPlay is a Digital rights management (DRM) technology created by Apple Computer, built in to the QuickTime multimedia technology and used by the iPod, iTunes, and the iTunes Music Store. ...

Devices that use DRM

The Microsoft Xbox is a sixth generation era video game console first released on November 15, 2001 in North America, then released on February 22, 2002 in Japan, and on March 14, 2002 in Europe. ... The Xbox 360, known during development as the Xenon, Xbox 2, Xbox Next or Nextbox, is the successor to Microsofts Xbox video game console. ... The inside of a DVD player A DVD player is a device for playing discs produced under the DVD Video standard. ... A grayscale fourth-generation iPod with earphones. ... PlaysForSure is a marketing certification given by Microsoft to portable hardware media players that have been verified to work with Microsoft Windows, specifically Windows XP and newer releases. ...

Lobbying organizations

 
 

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