Charles Darwin, the father of modern evolutionary theory

Although generally, evolution is taken to mean any process of change over time, in the context of life science, evolution is a change in the traits of living organisms over generations, including the emergence of new species. Since the development of modern genetics in the 1940s, evolution has been defined more specifically as a change in the frequency of alleles in a population from one generation to the next. This is a file from the Wikimedia Commons, a repository of free content hosted by the Wikimedia Foundation. ... Charles Darwin, about the same time as the publication of The Origin of Species. ... A process is a naturally occurring or designed sequence of operations or events, possibly taking up time, space, expertise or other resource, which produces some outcome. ... Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology is the science of life (from the Greek words bios = life and logos = word). ... In biology and ecology, an organism (in Greek organon = instrument) is a living being. ... In biology, a species is a kind of organism. ... Genetics (from the Greek genno γεννώ= give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. ... Centuries: 19th century - 20th century - 21st century Decades: 1890s 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s - 1940s - 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Years: 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 Events and trends Technology First nuclear bomb First cruise missile, the V1 flying bomb and the first ballistic missile, the... An allele is any one of a number of alternative forms of the same gene occupying a given locus (position) on a chromosome. ...

One of the first coherent theories of biological evolution was proposed in the early 19th century by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, though it did not meet with widespread approval. With the publication of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace's joint paper in 1858 followed by Darwin's book Origin of Species in 1859, the theory of evolution by natural selection became firmly established within the scientific community and rapidly caught the public imagination. In the 1930s, work by a number of scientists combined Darwinian natural selection with the re-discovered theory of heredity proposed by Gregor Mendel to create the modern evolutionary synthesis. In the modern synthesis, "evolution" means a change in the frequency of an allele within a gene pool. This change may be caused by a number of different mechanisms: natural selection, genetic drift or changes in population structure (gene flow). Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (August 1, 1744 - December 28, 1829) was a major 19th century naturalist, who was one of the first to use the term biology in its modern sense. ... Charles Darwin, about the same time as the publication of The Origin of Species. ... Alfred Russel Wallace Alfred Russel Wallace (January 8, 1823 — November 7, 1913) was a British naturalist, geographer, anthropologist and biologist. ... 1858 is a common year starting on Friday. ... The 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species First published in 1859, The Origin of Species (full title On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life) by British naturalist Charles Darwin is one of the pivotal... 1859 is a common year starting on Saturday. ... Alternative meaning Natural Selection (computer game). ... Events and trends Technology Jet engine invented First atom was split with a particle accelerator Golden Age of radio begins in U.S. Science Nuclear fission discovered by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann Pluto, the ninth planet from the Sun, is discovered by Clyde Tombaugh British biologist Arthur... For the scientific journal Heredity see Heredity (journal) Heredity (the adjective is hereditary) is the transfer of characters from parent to offspring, either through their genes or through the social institution called inheritance (for example, a title of nobility is passed from individual to individual according to relevant customs and... Gregor Johann Mendel Gregor Johann Mendel (July 22, 1822 – January 6, 1884) was a Czech-Austrian monk who is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. ... The modern evolutionary synthesis (often referred to simply as the modern synthesis), neo-Darwinian synthesis or neo-Darwinism, brings together Charles Darwins theory of the evolution of species by natural selection with Gregor Mendels theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance. ... An allele is any one of a number of alternative forms of the same gene occupying a given locus (position) on a chromosome. ... Greg Flesch is a guitarist and musician, best known for his work with the rock bands Daniel Amos and The Swirling Eddies (credited as Gene Pool). Flesch also works in the Atmospheric Laser Spectroscopy Group at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, writing software for the groups tunable... Alternative meaning Natural Selection (computer game). ... Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that acts in concert with natural selection to change the characteristics of species over time. ... Gene flow (also known as gene migration) is the transfer of genes from one population to another. ...

In common parlance the word "evolution" is often used as a shorthand for the modern synthesis of evolution, including the theory that all extant species share a common ancestor. It also is often used to describe the mechanisms through which evolution acts to change populations over time. The word theory has a number distinct meanings depending on the context. ...

Scientific theory

The theory underlying the modern synthesis has three major aspects:

1. The common descent of all organisms from a single ancestor.
2. The origin of novel traits in a lineage.
3. The mechanisms that cause some traits to persist while others perish.

The modern synthesis, like its Mendelian and Darwinian antecedents, is a scientific theory. In plain English, people use the word "theory" to signify "conjecture", "speculation", or "opinion". In contrast, a scientific theory is a model of the world (or some portion of it) from which falsifiable hypotheses can be generated and be verified through empirical observation. In this sense, "theory" and "fact" do not stand in opposition, but rather exist in a reciprocal relationship. Currently, the modern synthesis is the most powerful theory explaining variation and speciation, and within the science of biology, it has completely replaced other explanations for the origin of species, including creationism and Lamarckism. A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor. ... In biology and ecology, an organism (in Greek organon = instrument) is a living being. ... In biology, a trait or character is a genetically inherited feature of an organism. ... The word theory has a number distinct meanings depending on the context. ... This page discusses how a theory or assertion is falsifiable (disprovable opp: verifiable), rather than the non-philosophical use of falsification, meaning counterfeiting. ... A hypothesis (= assumption in ancient Greek) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. ... Empiricism (greek εμπειρισμός, from empirical, latin experientia - the experience) is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition or faith; that is, empirical research and a posteriori inductive reasoning rather... What is science? There are different theories of what science is. ... Biology is the science of life (from the Greek words bios = life and logos = reasoned account). ... This is an article on wide range of beliefs in creation ex nihilo. ... Lamarckism is a now discredited theory of biological evolution developed by French biologist Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck in the 19th century. ...

Ancestry of organisms

Pre-Cambrian stromatolites in the Siyeh Formation, Glacier National Park. In 2002, William Schopf of UCLA published a controversial paper in the journal Nature arguing that formations such as this possess 3.5 billion year old fossilized algae microbes. [1] (http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/space/SpaceRepublish_497964.htm) If true, they would be the earliest known life on earth.

A phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially by Carl Woese. Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution. The exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.

Genetic testing has shown that humans and chimpanzees have most of their DNA in common. In a study of 90,000 base pairs, Wayne State University's Morris Goodman found humans and chimpanzees share 99.4% of their DNA.[2] (http://www.freep.com/news/nw/chimp20_20030520.htm) [3] (http://www.reasons.org/resources/apologetics/humans_chimps_same_genus.shtml).

This is a NASA recreation of the famous Miller-Urey experiment. In 1953, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey sealed the chemical precursors to life in a closed environment, and subjected them to conditions similar to primordial earth. The results of the experiment suggest that the chemicals necessary for life did tend to arise under those circumstances, supporting the theories of Abiogenesis

A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor. In biology, the theory of universal common descent proposes that all organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool. A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor. ... Biology is the science of life (from the Greek words bios = life and logos = reasoned account). ...

Evidence for common descent may be found in traits shared between all living organisms. In Darwin's day, the evidence of shared traits was based solely on visible observation of morphologic similarities, such as the fact that all birds — even those which do not fly — have wings. Today, the theory of evolution has been strongly confirmed by the science of DNA genetics. For example, every living thing makes use of nucleic acids as its genetic material, and uses the same twenty amino acids as the building blocks for proteins. All organisms use the same genetic code (with some extremely rare and minor deviations) to translate nucleic acid sequences into proteins. Because the selection of these traits is somewhat arbitrary, their universality strongly suggests common ancestry. Comparative anatomy is the study of similarities and differences in organisms. ... Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and many viruses). ... A nucleic acid is a complex, high-molecular-weight biochemical macromolecule composed of nucleotide chains that convey genetic information. ... In chemistry, an amino acid is any molecule that contains both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. ... A representation of the 3D structure of myoglobin, showing coloured alpha helices. ... RNA codons. ... Translation in the cytoplasm; tRNA carries amino acids which are added to the growing peptide chain in the ribosome. ...

In addition, abiogenesis — the generation of life from non-living matter — has never been observed, indicating that the origin of life from non-life is either extremely rare or only happens under conditions very unlike those of modern Earth. The 1953 Miller-Urey experiment suggests that conditions on the ancient earth may have permitted abiogenesis. Abiogenesis (Greek a-bio-genesis, non biological origins) is, in its most general sense, the hypothetical generation of life from non-living matter. ... Pre-Cambrian stromatolites in the Siyeh Formation, Glacier National Park. ... The Miller-Urey experiment attempts to recreate the chemical conditions of the primitive Earth in the laboratory, and synthesized some of the building blocks of life. ...

Since abiogenesis is rare or impossible under modern conditions and the evolutionary process is exceedingly slow, the diversity and complexity of modern life requires that the Earth be very old, on the order of billions of years. This is compatible with geological evidence that the Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old. (See Timeline of evolution.) Geology (from Greek γη- (ge-, the earth) and λογος (logos, word, reason)) is the science and study of the Earth, its composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that shape it. ... The age of the Earth is estimated to be 4. ... This timeline outlines the major events in the development of life on planet Earth. ...

Information about the early development of life includes input from the fields of geology and planetary science. These sciences provide information about the history of the Earth and the changes produced by life. A great deal of information about the early Earth has been destroyed by geological processes over the course of time. Planetary science, also known as planetology or planetary astronomy, is the science of planets and the solar system, and incorporates an interdisciplinary approach drawing from diverse sciences. ...

Morphological evidence

Fossils are important for estimating when various lineages developed. As fossilization is an uncommon occurrence, usually requiring hard parts (like bone) and death near a site where sediments are being deposited, the fossil record only provides sparse and intermittent information about the evolution of life. Fossil evidence of early life is sparse before the evolution of organisms with hard body parts, such as shell, bone, and teeth, but exists in the form of ancient microfossils and the fossilization of ancient burrows and a few soft-bodied organisms. FOSSIL is a standard for allowing serial communication for telecommunications programs under DOS. FOSSIL stands for Fido Opus Seadog Standard Interface Layer and was made by a group of Fidonet sysops to make their software work on different machines. ... Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of water or other liquid. ... Ever since recorded history began, and probably before, people have found pieces of rock and other hard material with indentations from the remains of dead organisms. ...

Nevertheless, fossil evidence of prehistoric organisms has been found all over the Earth. The age of fossils can often be deduced from the geologic context in which they are found; and their absolute age can be verified with radiometric dating. Some fossils bear a resemblance to organisms alive today, while others are radically different. Fossils have been used to determine at what time a lineage developed, and can be used to demonstrate the continuity between two different lineages through transitional fossils. Paleontologists investigate evolution largely through analysis of fossils. Radiometric dating is a technique used to date materials based on a knowledge of the decay rates of naturally occurring isotopes, and the current abundances. ... A transitional fossil is a fossil specimen that combines features of two taxonomical divisions. ... A paleontologist carefully chips rock from a column of dinosaur vertebrae. ...

Phylogeny, the study of the ancestry of species, has revealed that structures with similar internal organization may perform divergent functions. Vertebrate limbs are a common example of such homologous structures. A vestigial organ or structure may exist with little or no purpose in one organism, though they have a clear purpose in others. The human wisdom teeth and appendix are common examples. A phylogeny (or phylogenesis) is the origin and evolution of a set of organisms, usually of a species. ... Typical classes Petromyzontidae (lampreys) Placodermi - extinct Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish) Acanthodii - extinct Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) Actinistia (coelacanths) Dipnoi (lungfish) Amphibia (amphibians) Reptilia (reptiles) Aves (birds) Mammalia (mammals) Vertebrata is a subphylum of chordates, specifically, those with backbones or spinal columns. ... A vestigial organ is an organ whose original function has been lost during evolution. ... Wisdom teeth are third molars that usually appear between the ages of 18 and 20 (although they may appear when older, or fail to appear at all). ... In human anatomy, the vermiform appendix (or appendix) is a blind ended tube connected to the cecum. ...

Genetic sequence evidence

Comparison of the genetic sequence of organisms reveals that organisms that are phylogenetically close have a higher degree of sequence similarity than organisms that are phylogenetically distant. For example, neutral human DNA sequences are approximately 1.2% divergent (based on substitutions) from those of their nearest genetic relative, the chimpanzee, 1.6% from gorillas [4]  (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11170892), and 6.6% from baboons[5] (http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/13/5/813). Sequence comparison is considered such a robust measure that it is sometimes used to correct mistakes in the phylogenetic tree, in instances where other evidence is scarce. A phylogeny (or phylogenesis) is the origin and evolution of a set of organisms, usually of a species. ... Species Pan troglodytes Pan paniscus Chimpanzee, often abbreviated to chimp, is the common name for two species in the genus Pan. ... The gorilla, the largest of the primates, is a ground-dwelling herbivore that inhabits the forests of central Africa. ... Species Papio hamadryas Papio papio Papio anubis Papio cynocephalus Papio ursinus The Baboon is the largest non-hominid member of the primate order (Although Barrie doent care because it still has an arse). ...

Further evidence for common descent comes from genetic detritus such as pseudogenes, regions of DNA which are orthologous to a gene in a related organism, but are no longer active and appear to be undergoing a steady process of degeneration[6]  (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10833048). A pseudogene is a nucleotide sequence that is part of the DNA or an organism that appears to have once coded a gene product (typically a protein) but no longer does so. ... In Biology (especially Genomics, Bioinformatics, Computational Biology, and Evolutionary Biology), a term used to describe two genes which share significant homology, and usually identical function, across two or more distinct species. ...

Since metabolic processes do not leave fossils, research into the evolution of the basic cellular processes is also done largely by comparison of existing organisms. Many lineages diverged at different stages of development, so it is theoretically possible to determine when certain metabolic processes appeared by comparing the traits of the descendants of a common ancestor. Santorio Santorio (1561-1636) in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medecina, first published 1614 Metabolism (from μεταβολισμος(metavallo), the Greek word for change), in the most general sense, is the ingestion and breakdown of complex compounds, coupled with the liberation of energy, and the consequent generation of waste...

Origin of life

Not much is known about the earliest development of life. However, all existing organisms share certain traits, including the cellular structure, and the genetic code. Most scientists interpret this to mean all existing organisms share a common ancestor, which had already developed the most fundamental cellular processes, but there is no scientific consensus on the relationship of the three domains of life (Archea, Bacteria, Eukaryota) or the origin of life. Attempts to shed light on the earliest history of life generally focus on the behavior of macromolecules, particularly RNA, and the behavior of complex systems. RNA codons. ... Scientific consensus is the majority agreement of the body of scientists in a particular field of science. ... Phyla / Classes Phylum Crenarchaeota Phylum Euryarchaeota     Halobacteria     Methanobacteria     Methanococci     Methanopyri     Archaeoglobi     Thermoplasmata     Thermococci Phylum Korarchaeota Phylum Nanoarchaeota The Archaea are a major group of prokaryotes. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus_Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular, bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... Kingdoms Eukaryotes are organisms with complex cells, in which the genetic material is organized into membrane-bound nuclei. ... Pre-Cambrian stromatolites in the Siyeh Formation, Glacier National Park. ... A macromolecule is a molecule composed of a very large number of atoms. ... Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a nucleic acid consisting of a string of covalently-bound nucleotides. ... A complex system is a system whose properties are not fully explained by an understanding of its component parts. ...

Though the origins of life are murky, other milestones in the evolutionary history of life are well-known. The emergence of oxygenic photosynthesis (around 3 billion years ago) and the subsequent emergence of an oxygen-rich, non-reducing atmosphere can be traced through the formation of banded iron deposits, and later red beds of iron oxides. This was a necessary prerequisite for the development of aerobic cellular respiration, believed to have emerged around 2 billion years ago. In the last billion years, simple multicellular plants and animals began to appear in the oceans. Soon after the emergence of the first animals the Cambrian explosion (a period of unrivaled and remarkable, but brief, organismal diversity documented in the fossils found at the Burgess Shale) saw the creation of all the major body plans, or phyla, of modern animals. About 500 million years ago, plants and fungi colonized the land, and were soon followed by arthropods and other animals, leading to the development of land ecosystems with which we are familiar. Leaf. ... This article or section should be merged with aerobic metabolism. ... Cellular respiration is, in its broadest definition, the process in which the chemical bonds of energy-rich molecules such as glucose are converted into energy usable for life processes. ... The Cambrian Explosion is the seemingly sudden appearance of a number of new complex organisms between 543 and 530 million years ago (MYA). ... The Burgess shale (named after Mount Burgess, near where the shale was found) is a black shale found high up in the Canadian Rockies in Yoho National Park near the town of Field, British Columbia. ... Scientific classification or biological classification refers to how biologists group and categorize extinct and living species of organisms. ... Divisions Green algae land plants (embryophytes) non-vascular embryophytes Hepatophyta - liverworts Anthocerophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses vascular plants (tracheophytes) seedless vascular plants Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses Equisetophyta - horsetails Pteridophyta - true ferns Psilotophyta - whisk ferns Ophioglossophyta - adderstongue ferns seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering... Divisions Chytridiomycota Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota The Fungi (singular: fungus) are a large group of organisms ranked as a kingdom within the Domain Eukaryota. ... Subphyla and Classes Subphylum Trilobitomorpha Trilobita - Trilobites (extinct) Subphylum Chelicerata Arachnida - Spiders, Scorpions, etc. ... In ecology, an ecosystem is a naturally occurring assemblage of organisms (plant, animal and other living organisms—also referred to as a biotic community or biocoenosis) living together with their environment (or biotope), functioning as a unit of sorts. ...

Emergence of novel traits

Mechanisms of inheritance

In Darwin's time, scientists did not share broad agreement on how traits were inherited. Today most inherited traits are traced to discrete, persistent entities called genes, encoded in linear molecules called DNA. Though by and large faithfully maintained, DNA is both variable across individuals and subject to a process of change or mutation (described below). In biology, a trait or character is a genetically inherited feature of an organism. ... This stylistic schematic diagram shows a gene in relation to the double helix structure of DNA and to a chromosome (right). ... Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and many viruses). ... This article is about mutation in biology, for other meanings see: mutation (disambiguation). ...

However, other non-DNA based forms of heritable variation exist. The processes that produce these variations leave the genetic information intact and are often reversible. This is called epigenetic inheritance and may include phenomena such as DNA methylation, prions, and structural inheritance. Investigations continue into whether these mechanisms allow for the production of specific beneficial heritable variation in response to environmental signals. If this is shown to be the case, then some instances of evolution would lie outside of the typically Darwinian framework, which avoided any connection between environmental signals and the production of heritable variation. Epigenetic inheritance is the transmission of information from a cell or multicellular organism to its descendants without that information being encoded in the nucleotide sequence of the gene. ... For the bird called a prion, see Prion (bird) Prions — short for proteinaceous infectious particle — are infectious self-reproducing protein structures. ... Structural inheritance is the transmission of a trait in a living organism by a self-perpetuating spatial structures. ...

Mutation

Darwin did not know the source of variations in individual organisms, but observed that it seemed to be by chance. Later work pinned much of this variation onto mutations. Mutations are permanent, transmissible changes to the genetic material (usually DNA or RNA) of a cell, and can be caused by "copying errors" in the genetic material during cell division and by exposure to radiation, chemicals, or viruses, or can occur deliberately under cellular control during processes such as meiosis or hypermutation. In multicellular organisms, mutations can be subdivided into germline mutations, which can be passed on to progeny and somatic mutations, which (when accidental) often lead to the malfunction or death of a cell and can cause cancer. Genetic material is the material used to store genetic information for a living organism. ... Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and many viruses). ... Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a nucleic acid consisting of a string of covalently-bound nucleotides. ... Cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms, sometimes called the building blocks of life. ... Cell division is the process of a biological cell (called a mother cell) dividing into two daughter cells. ... Radiation generally means the transmission of objects or information from a source into a surrounding medium or destination. ... A common alternate meaning of virus is computer virus. ... Overview of the major events in meiosis Meiosis (a Greek word meaning decrease) is a cellular process that forms the basis for sexual reproduction, together with syngamy. ... Hypermutation is the central aspect to making the Acquired immune system possible. ... When normal cells are damaged or old they undergo apoptosis; cancer cells, however, avoid apoptosis. ...

Mutations introduce new genetic variation, without which evolution cannot proceed. Neutral mutations do not affect the organism's chances of survival in its natural environment and can accumulate over time, which might result in what is known as punctuated equilibrium, the modern interpretation of classic evolutionary theory. The neutral theory of molecular evolution (also, simply the neutral theory of evolution) is an influential theory that was introduced with provocative effect by Motoo Kimura in the late 1960s and early 1970s. ... Punctuated equilibrium, or punctuated equilibria, is a theory of evolution which states that changes such as speciation can occur relatively quickly, with long periods of little change—equilibria—in between. ...

Most biologists believe that adaptation occurs through the accumulation of many mutations of small effect. However, macromutation is an alternative process for adaption which involves a single, very large scale mutation. A biological adaptation is an anatomical structure, physiological process or behavioral trait of an organism that has evolved over a period of time by the process of natural selection such that it increases the expected long-term reproductive success of the organism. ... Most biologists believe that adaptation occurs through the accumulation of small mutations. ...

Differential survival of traits

While mutation can create new alleles, other factors influence the frequency of existing alleles. These factors mean that some characteristics will become more frequent while others diminish or are lost entirely. There are three known processes that affect the survival of a characteristic; or, more specifically, the frequency of an allele: An allele is any one of a number of alternative forms of the same gene occupying a given locus (position) on a chromosome. ...

• Genetic drift
• Gene flow
• Natural selection

Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that acts in concert with natural selection to change the characteristics of species over time. ... Gene flow (also known as gene migration) is the transfer of genes from one population to another. ... Alternative meaning Natural Selection (computer game). ...

Natural selection

Natural selection is based on differential survival and reproduction rates as a result of the environment. Differential mortality is the survival rate of individuals before their reproductive age. If they survive, they are then selected further by differential fertility — that is, their total genetic contribution to the next generation.

Natural selection can be subdivided into two categories:

• Ecological selection occurs when organisms that survive and reproduce increase the frequency of their genes in the gene pool over those that do not survive.
• Sexual selection occurs when organisms that are more attractive to the opposite sex because of their features reproduce more and increase the frequency of those features in the gene pool.

Natural selection also operates on mutations in several different ways: Ecological selection (or environmental selection or survival selection or individual selection or asexual selection) refers to natural selection minus sexual selection, i. ... Illustration from The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex by Charles Darwin showing the tufted coquette Lophornis ornatus, female on left, ornamented male on right. ...

• Purifying or background selection eliminates deleterious mutations from a population.
• Positive selection increases the frequency of a beneficial mutation.
• Balancing selection maintains variation within a population through a number of mechanisms, including:
  • Overdominance or heterozygote advantage, where the heterozygote is more fit than either of the homozygous forms (famously exemplified by human sickle cell anemia conferring resistance to malaria)
  • Frequency-dependent selection, where the rare variants have a higher fitness.

The central role of natural selection in evolutionary theory has given rise to a strong connection between that field and the study of ecology. In population genetics, directional selection (sometimes referred to as positive selection) occurs when natural selection favors a single allele and therefore allele frequency continuously shift in one direction. ... Balancing selection refers to forms of natural selection which work to maintain genetic polymorphisms (or multiple alleles) within a population. ... A heterozygote advantage (heterozygous advantage or overdominance) describes the case in which in which the heterozygote genotype has a higher relative fitness than either the homozygote dominant or homozygote recessive genotype. ... Heterozygote cells are diploid or polyploid and have different alleles at a locus (position) on homologous chromosomes. ... Sickle-shaped red blood cells Sickle cell anemia (American English), sickle cell anaemia (British English) or sickle cell disease is a genetic disease in which red blood cells may change shape under certain circumstances. ... Malaria - Wikipedia /**/ @import /skins/monobook/IE50Fixes. ... Frequency dependent selection is the term given to an evolutionary process where the fitness of a phenotype is dependent on the relative frequency of other phenotypes in a given population. ... Ecology can mean either: the natural environment, or an analysis or study using the principles and methods of ecological science. ...

Mutations that are not affected by natural selection are called neutral mutations. Their frequency in the population is governed entirely by genetic drift and gene flow. It is understood that an organism's DNA sequence, in the absence of selection, undergoes a steady accumulation of neutral mutations. The probable mutation effect is the proposition that a gene that is not under selection will be destroyed by accumulated mutations. This is an aspect of genome degradation. The neutral theory of molecular evolution (also, simply the neutral theory of evolution) is an influential theory that was introduced with provocative effect by Motoo Kimura in the late 1960s and early 1970s. ... Genome degradation is the loss of genetic information within a genome. ...

• Selection of organisms for desirable characteristics, when done by humans, e.g. for agriculture or as pets, is called artificial selection.

• Baldwinian evolution refers to the way human beings, as cultured animals capable of symbolic (extrasomatic) learning, can change their environment, or the environment of any species, in such a way as to result in new selective forces.

... James Mark Baldwin (Columbia, South Carolina, 1861—1934) was an American philosopher, educated at Princeton and several German universities. ... The word culture comes from the Latin root colere (to inhabit, to cultivate, or to honor). ...

Genetic drift

Genetic drift describes changes in allele frequency that cannot be ascribed to selective pressures, but are due instead to events that are unrelated to inherited traits. This is especially important in small mating populations, where chance fluctuations from generation to generation can be large. Such fluctuations in allele frequency between successive generations may result in some alleles disappearing from the population. Two separate populations that begin with the same allele frequency might, therefore, "drift" by random fluctuation into two divergent populations with different allele sets (for example, alleles that are present in one have been lost in the other). Rare sporadic events (volcanic explosion, meteor impact, etc.) might contribute to genetic drift by altering the allele frequency outside of "normal" selective pressures. A volcano is a geological landform (usually a mountain) where magma (rock of the earths interior made molten or liquid by high pressure and temperature) erupts through the surface of the planet. ... A meteor is the visible path of a meteoroid that enters the Earths (or another bodys) atmosphere, commonly called a shooting star or falling star. ...

Many aspects of genetic drift depend on the size of the population (generally abbreviated as N). In small populations, genetic drift can cause large changes in allele frequencies from one generation to the next, whereas in large populations, changes in allele frequencies in each generation are usually very small. The relative importance of natural selection and genetic drift in determining the fate of new mutations also depends on the population size and the strength of selection: when N times s (population size times strength of selection) is small, genetic drift predominates. When N times s is large, selection predominates. Thus natural selection is 'more efficient' in large populations, or equivalently, genetic drift is stronger in small populations. Finally, the time for an allele to become fixed in the population by genetic drift (that is, for all individuals in the population to carry that allele) depends on population size, with smaller populations requiring a shorter time to fixation.

Gene flow

Gene flow (or gene admixture) is the only mechanism whereby populations can become closer genetically while building larger gene pools. Migration of one population into another area occupied by a second population can result in gene flow. Gene flow operates when geography and culture are not obstacles. Gene flow (also known as gene migration) is the transfer of genes from one population to another. ...

Microevolution and macroevolution

Microevolution consists of small-scale changes in gene frequencies in a population over the course of a few generations. These changes may be due to a number of processes: mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, as well as natural selection. Population genetics is the branch of biology that provides the mathematical structure for the study of the process of microevolution. Microevolution is the occurrence of small-scale changes in gene frequencies in a population over a few generations, also known as change at or below the species level. ... Population genetics is the study of the distribution of and change in allele frequencies under the influence of the four evolutionary forces: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation and migration. ...

Macroevolution works through large-scale changes in gene-frequencies in a population over a long period of time, and is usually taken to refer to events that result in speciation, the evolution of a new species. An absolute distinction between macroevolution and microevolution isn't normally drawn by biologists for a number of reasons, including no definition of what constitutes a 'macroevolutionary' change. Mutations to existing species resulting in entirely new species have been observed in the laboratory and in the field. Macroevolution is the concept that evolution of species and higher taxa is the result of large-scale changes in gene-frequencies over time. ... Speciation refers to the appearance of a new species of life on earth, particularly as seen in the fossil record. ... In biology, a species is a kind of organism. ...

The relation between microevolution and macroevolution can be summed up as such: macroevolution is the long-term result of many microevolutions that, over time, result in two populations of organisms so different that speciation can be said to have occurred.

Speciation and extinction

Speciation is the creation of two or more species from one. There are various mechanisms by which this may take place. Allopatric speciation begins when subpopulations of a species become isolated geographically, for example by habitat fragmentation or migration. Sympatric speciation occurs when new species emerge in the same geographic area. Ernst Mayr's peripatric speciation is a type of speciation that exists in between the extremes of allopatry and sympatry. Peripatric speciation is a critical underpinning of the theory of punctuated equilibrium. Speciation refers to the appearance of a new species of life on earth, particularly as seen in the fossil record. ... Allopatric speciation (also known as Allopatry) is speciation by geographical isolation. ... Habitat fragmentation is a process of environmental change important in evolution and conservation biology. ... Sympatry is one of three theoretical models for the phenomenon of speciation. ... Ernst Mayr Ernst Mayr (July 5, 1904, Kempten, Germany - February 3, 2005, Bedford, Massachusetts USA), was one of the 20th centurys leading evolutionary biologists. ... Peripatric speciation (also known as Parapatry) is a type of speciation in the theory of natural selection. ... Punctuated equilibrium, or punctuated equilibria, is a theory of evolution which states that changes such as speciation can occur relatively quickly, with long periods of little change—equilibria—in between. ...

Extinction is the disappearance of species (i.e. gene pools). The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species. Extinction is not an unusual event in geological time — species are created by speciation, and disappear through extinction. In biology and ecology, extinction is the ceasing of existence of a species or group of species. ... Greg Flesch is a guitarist and musician, best known for his work with the rock bands Daniel Amos and The Swirling Eddies (credited as Gene Pool). Flesch also works in the Atmospheric Laser Spectroscopy Group at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California, writing software for the groups tunable... The table and timeline of geologic periods presented here is in accordance with the dates and nomenclature proposed by the International Commission on Stratigraphy. ...

Evolutionary biology

Evolutionary biology is a subfield of biology concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time. Evolutionary biology is a kind of meta field because it includes scientists from many traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally includes scientists who may have a specialist training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, or herpetology but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions in evolution. Evolutionary biology is a subfield of biology concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, i. ... Biology is the science of life (from the Greek words bios = life and logos = reasoned account). ... In biology, a species is a kind of organism. ... Taxonomy (from Greek ταξινομία from the words taxis = order and nomos = law) may refer to either a hierarchical classification of things, or the principles underlying the classification. ... In biology and ecology, an organism (in Greek organon = instrument) is a living being. ... In biology, mammalogy is the study of mammals, a class of vertebrates with characteristics such as homeothermic metabolism, fur, four-chambered hearts, and complex nervous systems. ... Ornithology (from the Greek ornitha = chicken and logos = word/science) is the branch of biology concerned with the scientific study of birds. ... Herpetology is the branch of zoology concerned with the study of reptiles and amphibians including their classification, ecology, behavior, physiology, anatomy, and paleontology. ...

Evolutionary biology as an academic discipline in its own right emerged as a result of the modern evolutionary synthesis in the 1930s and 1940s. It was not until the 1970s and 1980s, however, that a significant number of universities had departments that specifically included the term evolutionary biology in their titles. This is a list of academic disciplines (and academic fields). ... The modern evolutionary synthesis (often referred to simply as the modern synthesis), neo-Darwinian synthesis or neo-Darwinism, brings together Charles Darwins theory of the evolution of species by natural selection with Gregor Mendels theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance. ... Events and trends Technology Jet engine invented First atom was split with a particle accelerator Golden Age of radio begins in U.S. Science Nuclear fission discovered by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Strassmann Pluto, the ninth planet from the Sun, is discovered by Clyde Tombaugh British biologist Arthur... Centuries: 19th century - 20th century - 21st century Decades: 1890s 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s - 1940s - 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s Years: 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 Events and trends Technology First nuclear bomb First cruise missile, the V1 flying bomb and the first ballistic missile, the... Events and trends Although in the United States and in many other Western societies the 1970s are often seen as a period of transition between the turbulent 1960s and the more conservative 1980s and 1990s, many of the trends that are associated widely with the Sixties, from the Sexual Revolution... Events and trends The 1980s marked an abrupt shift towards more conservative lifestyles after the momentous cultural revolutions which took place in the 1960s and 1970s and the definition of the AIDS virus in 1981. ...

History of evolutionary thought

The 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species

Stephen Jay Gould, who, along with Niles Eldredge proposed the theory of punctuated equilibrium in 1972

The idea of biological evolution has existed since ancient times, notably among Hellenists such as Epicurus, but the modern theory wasn't established until the 18th and 19th centuries, with scientists such as Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Charles Darwin. While transmutation of species was accepted by a sizeable number of scientists before 1859, it was the publication of Charles Darwin's The Origin of Species which provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could persist: his theory of natural selection. Darwin was motivated to publish his work on evolution after receiving a letter from Alfred Russel Wallace, in which Wallace revealed his own discovery of natural selection. As such, Wallace is sometimes given shared credit for the theory of evolution. Epicurus, Hellenistic civilization Greek philosopher born Samos 341 BC; died Athens, 270 BC. Epicurus was born into an Athenian émigré family — his parents, both Athenian citizens, had moved to an Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of Samos. ... Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (August 1, 1744 - December 28, 1829) was a major 19th century naturalist, who was one of the first to use the term biology in its modern sense. ... Charles Darwin, about the same time as the publication of The Origin of Species. ... 1859 is a common year starting on Saturday. ... The 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species First published in 1859, The Origin of Species (full title On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life) by British naturalist Charles Darwin is one of the pivotal... Alfred Russel Wallace Alfred Russel Wallace (January 8, 1823 — November 7, 1913) was a British naturalist, geographer, anthropologist and biologist. ...

Darwin's theory, though it succeeded in profoundly shaking scientific opinion regarding the development of life (and indeed resulted in a small social revolution), could not explain the source of variation in traits within a species, and Darwin's proposal of a hereditary mechanism (pangenesis) was not compelling to most biologists. It was not until the late 19th and early 20th centuries that these mechanisms were established. For the scientific journal Heredity see Heredity (journal) Heredity (the adjective is hereditary) is the transfer of characters from parent to offspring, either through their genes or through the social institution called inheritance (for example, a title of nobility is passed from individual to individual according to relevant customs and... Pangenesis was Charles Darwins hypothetical mechanism for heredity. ...

When Gregor Mendel's work regarding the nature of inheritance in the late 19th century was "rediscovered" in 1900, it led to a storm of conflict between Mendelians (Charles Benedict Davenport) and biometricians (Walter Frank Raphael Weldon and Karl Pearson), who insisted that the great majority of traits important to evolution must show continuous variation that was not explainable by Mendelian analysis. Eventually, the two models were reconciled and merged, primarily through the work of the biologist and statistician R.A. Fisher. This combined approach, applying a rigorous statistical model to Mendel's theories of inheritance via genes, became known in the 1930s and 1940s as the modern evolutionary synthesis. Gregor Johann Mendel Gregor Johann Mendel (July 22, 1822 – January 6, 1884) was a Czech-Austrian monk who is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... Charles Benedict Davenport (June 1, 1866 — February 18, 1944) was a prominent American biologist and eugenicist. ... Walter Frank Raphael Weldon (15 March 1860 — 13 April 1906) was an English evolutionary zoologist and biometrician. ... Karl Pearson (March 27, 1857 – April 27, 1936) was a major contributor to the early development of statistics as a serious scientific discipline in its own right. ... Sir Ronald Fisher Sir Ronald Aylmer Fisher, FRS (February 17, 1890–July 29, 1962) was an extraordinarily talented evolutionary biologist, geneticist and statistician. ... The modern evolutionary synthesis (often referred to simply as the modern synthesis), neo-Darwinian synthesis or neo-Darwinism, brings together Charles Darwins theory of the evolution of species by natural selection with Gregor Mendels theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance. ...

In the 1940s, following up on Griffith's experiment, Avery, McCleod and McCarty definitively identified deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) as the "transforming principle" responsible for transmitting genetic information. In 1953, Francis Crick and James Watson published their famous paper on the structure of DNA, based on the research of Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. These developments ignited the era of molecular biology and transformed the understanding of evolution into a molecular process: the mutation of segments of DNA (see molecular evolution). Griffiths experiment was conducted in 1928 by Frederick Griffith which was one of the first experiments suggesting that bacteria are capable of transferring genetic information, otherwise known as the “transforming principle”, which was later discovered to be DNA. Griffith used two strains of Pneumococcus (which infects mice), a S... Marclyn McCarty (June 9, 1911–January 2, 2005) was an American geneticist. ... Space-filling model of a section of DNA molecule Deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions specifying the biological development of all cellular forms of life (and many viruses). ... 1953 is a common year starting on Thursday. ... Photomontage of Francis Crick lecturing Francis Harry Compton Crick, OM (June 8, 1916 – July 28, 2004) was one of the discoverers of the structure of the DNA molecule. ... There is more than one person with the name James Watson: James Watson, author of the novel Talking in Whispers James Watson, U.S. Senator from New York (1797-1801) James Watson, painter of 77 portraits held by the U.S. National Portrait Gallery [[1]] James Watson, British radical, Chartist... Rosalind Franklin Rosalind Elsie Franklin (July 25, 1920 - April 16, 1958) was a British physical chemist and crystallographer who made important contributions to the understanding of the fine structures of coal, DNA and viruses. ... Maurice Hugh Frederick Wilkins (December 15, 1916 – October 5, 2004) was a New Zealand born British physicist and Nobel Laureate who contributed research in the fields of phosphorescence, radar, isotope separation, and X-ray diffraction. ... Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. ... This article is about mutation in biology, for other meanings see: mutation (disambiguation). ... Molecular evolution is the process of the genetic material in populations of organisms changing over time. ...

In the mid-1970s, Motoo Kimura formulated the neutral theory of molecular evolution, firmly establishing the importance of genetic drift as a major mechanism of evolution. Debates have continued within the field. One of the most prominent outstanding debates is over the theory of punctuated equilibrium, a theory propounded by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould to explain the paucity of transitional forms between phyla. Events and trends Although in the United States and in many other Western societies the 1970s are often seen as a period of transition between the turbulent 1960s and the more conservative 1980s and 1990s, many of the trends that are associated widely with the Sixties, from the Sexual Revolution... Motoo Kimura (November 13, 1924 - November 13, 1994) was a highly influential Japanese mathematical biologist, working in the field of theoretical population genetics. ... The neutral theory of molecular evolution (also, simply the neutral theory of evolution) is an influential theory that was introduced with provocative effect by Motoo Kimura in the late 1960s and early 1970s. ... Genetic drift is a mechanism of evolution that acts in concert with natural selection to change the characteristics of species over time. ... Punctuated equilibrium, or punctuated equilibria, is a theory of evolution which states that changes such as speciation can occur relatively quickly, with long periods of little change—equilibria—in between. ... Dr. Niles Eldredge (born August 25, 1943) is a paleontologist, who, along with Stephen Jay Gould, propsed the theory of Punctuated equilibrium in 1972. ... Stephen Jay Gould Stephen Jay Gould (September 10, 1941 – May 20, 2002) was a New York-born American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science. ...

History and impact of the theory of evolution

Clarence Darrow and William Bryan chat during the 1925 Scopes Trial where J.Scopes was fined for teaching the theory of evolution.

As the scientific explanation of life's diversity has developed, it has often displaced alternative, sometimes very widely held, explanations. Because the theory of evolution includes an explanation of humanity's origins, it has had a profound impact on human societies. Some have vigorously opposed acceptance of the scientific explanation due to its perceived religious implications (e.g. its implied rejection of the special creation of humans described in the Bible). In the United States this has led to a vigorous conflict between creation and evolution in public education, though this appears to be largely a local phenomenon. Photo taken of Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan during the scopes trial in 1925. ... Photo taken of Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan during the scopes trial in 1925. ... Clarence Darrow ca. ... William Jennings Bryan, (March 19, 1860–July 26, 1925) born in Salem, Illinois, was a gifted orator and three-time United States presidential candidate. ... Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan chat in court during the trial. ... This article is in need of attention. ... The Bible (From Greek (τα) βιβλια, (ta) biblia, (the) books, plural of βιβλιον, biblion, book, originally a diminutive of βιβλος, biblos, which in turn is derived from βυβλος—byblos, meaning papyrus, from the ancient Phoenician city of Byblos which exported this writing material), is a word applied to sacred scriptures. ... The legal status of creation and evolution in public education is the subject of a great deal of debate in scientific, legal, and religious circles. ...

Evolution and ethical systems

The theory of evolution by natural selection has also been adopted as a foundation for various ethical and social systems, such as social Darwinism, which holds that "the survival of the fittest" explains and justifies differences in wealth and success among societies and people and eugenics, which claimed that human civilization was subverting natural selection by allowing the "less fit" to survive and "out-breed" the "more fit." After the atrocities of the Holocaust became linked with eugenics, it greatly fell out of favor with public and scientific opinion (though it was never universally accepted by either). Social Darwinism is a descriptive term given to a kind of social theory that draws an association between Darwins theory of evolution by natural selection, and the sociological relations of humanity. ... Eugenics is the self-direction of human evolution: Logo from the Second International Congress of Eugenics, 1921, depicting it as a tree which unites a variety of different fields. ... Concentration camp inmates during the Holocaust The Holocaust was Nazi Germanys systematic genocide (ethnic cleansing) of various ethnic, religious, national, and secular groups during World War II, starting in 1941 and continuing through 1945. ...

The notion that humans share ancestors with other animals has also affected how some people view the relationship between humans and other species. Many proponents of animal rights hold that if animals and humans are of the same nature, then rights cannot be distinct to humans. The theory has also been incorporated into other fields of knowledge, creating hybrids such as evolutionary psychology and sociobiology. Animal rights, or animal liberation, is the movement to protect non-human animals from being exploited by humans. ... Evolutionary psychology or (EP) proposes that human and primate cognition and behavior could be better understood by examining them in light of human and primate evolutionary history. ... Sociobiology is a branch of biology and also sociology that attempts to throw light upon behavior in both human and non-human societies in terms of evolutionary advantage or strategy. ...

Evolution and religion

Before the serious study of geology as a science began, early in the 19th century, Western religions almost unanimously discounted or condemned any claims that life is the result of an evolutionary process, as did nearly all scientists. However, as geological evidence began to accumulate throughout the world, a number of scientists began to question whether a literal interpretation of the creation account in the Judeo-Christian Bible could be reconciled with reality. Certain religious geologists like Dean William Buckland in England, Edward Hitchcock in America and Hugh Miller in Scotland continued to explain the evidence in terms of a universal deluge, but after Charles Darwin published The Origin of Species in 1859, scientific opinion began to quickly swing away from literal interpretations of the Bible. This early debate about the literal validity of the Bible was not conducted behind closed doors and it unsettled educated opinion in both continents. Eventually it instigated a "counter-reformation" that took the form of a religious Revival in both continents in 1857-1860. The Bible (From Greek (τα) βιβλια, (ta) biblia, (the) books, plural of βιβλιον, biblion, book, originally a diminutive of βιβλος, biblos, which in turn is derived from βυβλος—byblos, meaning papyrus, from the ancient Phoenician city of Byblos which exported this writing material), is a word applied to sacred scriptures. ... William Buckland (12 March 1784 - 24 August 1856) was a prominent English geologist and palaeontologist who wrote the first full account of a fossil dinosaur, a proponent of Old Earth creationism and Flood geology who later became convinced by the glaciation theory of Louis Agassiz. ... Edward Hitchcock (24 May 1793 – 27 February 1864) was the third President of Amherst College, from 1845 to 1854. ... Hugh Miller (1802 - 1856) was a Scottish geologist and writer. ... Charles Darwin, about the same time as the publication of The Origin of Species. ... The 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species First published in 1859, The Origin of Species (full title On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life) by British naturalist Charles Darwin is one of the pivotal... This article should be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ...

Literal or authoritative interpretation of Scripture holds that a supreme being directly created humans and other animals as separate species. This view is commonly referred to as creationism, and continues to be defended by some religious groups, particularly among American Protestants. Many religions and spiritual movements hold certain written texts (or series of spoken legends not traditionally written down) to be sacred. ... This article focuses on the concept of singular, monotheistic God. ... This is an article on wide range of beliefs in creation ex nihilo. ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ...

In response to the wide scientific acceptance of the theory of evolution, many religions have formally or informally synthesized the scientific and religious viewpoints. Some religions have adopted a theistic evolution viewpoint, where the God provides a divine spark that ignited the process of evolution and (or), where the God has guided evolution in one way or another. Evolutionary creationism encompasses the concept of theistic evolution, a synthesis of the religious belief in a creator God with the scientific theory of evolution. ... The term God is ordinarily used to designate a singular, universal Supreme Being. ... For the Jain teacher Mahāvīras philosophy, see vitalism (philosophy). ...

For example, the Roman Catholic Church, beginning in 1950 with Pope Pius XII's encyclical Humani Generis, took up a neutral position with regard to evolution. "The Church does not forbid that...research and discussions, on the part of men experienced in both fields, take place with regard to the doctrine of evolution, in as far as it inquires into the origin of the human body as coming from pre-existent and living matter." [7]  (http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/pius_xii/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_12081950_humani-generis_en.html). In an October 22, 1996, address to the Pontifical Academy of Science, Pope John Paul II updated the Church's position, recognizing that Evolution is "more than a hypothesis" [8] (http://www.ewtn.com/library/PAPALDOC/JP961022.HTM). (For more see: evolution and the Roman Catholic Church). The Roman Catholic Church is the largest religious denomination of Christianity with over one billion members. ... 1950 was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... The Venerable Pope Pius XII, born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli (March 2, 1876 – October 9, 1958 in Rome, Italy), served as the Pope from March 2, 1939 to 1958. ... October 22 is the 295th day of the year (296th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 70 days remaining. ... 1996 is a leap year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year for the Eradication of Poverty. ... His Holiness Pope John Paul II, officially in Latin , born Karol Józef Wojtyla [1] (May 18, 1920 – April 2, 2005), was Pope of the Roman Catholic Church for almost 27 years, from 16 October 1978 until his death. ... The position of the Roman Catholic Church on the theory of evolution by natural selection has changed over time. ...

In countries or regions where the majority of people hold strong religious beliefs, creationism has a much broader appeal than in countries where the majority of people hold secular beliefs. From the 1920s to the present in the US, there has been a strong religious backlash to the teaching of evolution theory, particularly by evangelicals. Some creationists, such as Dr. Kent Hovind, believe that evolution is the basis for Nazism, Communism, Marxism, Mother Earth worship, racism, and that "dinosaurs were in the Garden of Eden, have always lived with man, were on the ark with Noah, and a few may still be alive today in some parts of the world." Secularism means: in philosophy, the belief that life can be best lived by applying ethics, and the universe best understood, by processes of reasoning, without reference to a god or gods or other supernatural concepts. ... 1920 is a leap year starting on Thursday (link will take you to calendar) Events January January 7 - Forces of Russian White admiral Kolchak surrender in Krasnoyarsk. ... Kent Hovind Kent E. Hovind (born 15 January 1953), the self-styled Dr Dino, is an American Young Earth Creationist evangelist who is currently offering US$250,000 to anyone who can prove evolution is the only possible way, that the Universe and life arose, although the offer is widely... The Nazi party used a right-facing swastika as their symbol and the red and black colors were said to represent Blut und Boden (blood and soil). ... Communism is a term that can refer to one of several things: a social and economic system, an ideology which supports that system, or a political movement that wishes to implement that system. ... Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... Mother Earth is a common metaphorical expression for the Earth and its biosphere as the giver and sustainer of life. ... An African-American drinks out of a water cooler designated for use by colored patrons in 1939 at a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City. ... Orders Saurischia    Sauropodomorpha    Theropoda Ornithischia Dinosaurs are reptiles that dominated the terrestrial ecosystem for most of their 165-million year existence. ... This article is about the Biblical location. ... In the Hebrew Bibles account (Gen. ...

References

• Darwin, Charles November 24, 1859. On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection. London: John Murray, Albemarle Street. 502 pages. Reprinted: Gramercy (May 22, 1995). ISBN 0517123207
• Zimmer, Carl. Evolution: The Triumph of an Idea. Perennial (October 1, 2002). ISBN 0060958502
• Larson, Edward J. Evolution: The Remarkable History of a Scientific Theory (Modern Library Chronicles). Modern Library (May 4, 2004). ISBN 0679642889
• Mayr, Ernst. What Evolution Is. Basic Books (October, 2002). ISBN 0465044263
• Gigerenzer, Gerd, et al., The empire of chance: how probability changed science and everyday life (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989).

November 24 is the 328th day (329th on leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1859 is a common year starting on Saturday. ... The 1859 edition of On the Origin of Species First published in 1859, The Origin of Species (full title On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life) by British naturalist Charles Darwin is one of the pivotal...

See also

Anagenesis is the progressive evolution of species involving a change in gene frequency in an entire population rather than a cladogenetic branching event. ... An argument from evolution attempts to prove or disprove the existence of God. ... During the interval between the acceptance of Darwinian evolution and the rise of modern understanding of genetics, atavism was used to account for the reappearance in an individual of a trait after several generations of absence. ... Catagenesis can refer to: The cracking process in which organic kerogens are broken down into hydrocarbons (see catagenesis (geology)) Retrogressive evolution, as contrasted with anagenesis (see catagenesis (biology)) This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Cladogenesis is an evolutionary splitting event in which each branch and its smaller branches is a clade; an evolutionary mechanism and a process of adaptive evolution that leads to the development of a greater variety of animals or plants. ... In evolutionary biology, convergent evolution describes the process whereby organisms not closely related independently acquire similar characteristics while evolving in separate and sometimes varying ecosystems. ... Evolutionary medicine or Darwinian medicine is a perspective on medicine derived through applying evolutionary theory. ... An endosymbiont (also known as intracellular symbiont) is any organism that lives within cells of another organism, i. ... An evolutionary algorithm (also EA, evolutionary computation, artificial evolution) is a generic term used to indicate any population-based optimization algorithm that uses mechanisms inspired by biological evolution, such as reproduction, mutation and recombination (see genetic operators). ... The evolution of sex is a major puzzle in modern evolutionary biology, due to the so-called two-fold cost of sex. ... The evolutionary tree of living things is currently supposed to run something along the lines of that listed below. ... In evolutionary biology, the field of experimental evolution is concerned with testing the Darwinian theory in controlled experiments. ... In evolutionary biology, fitness landscapes or adaptive landscapes are used to visualize the relationship between genotypes (or phenotypes) and replicatory success. ... A genetic algorithm (GA) is a heuristic used to find approximate solutions to difficult-to-solve problems through application of the principles of evolutionary biology to computer science. ... Gradualism, in biology, holds that evolution occurs through the accumulation of slight modifications over a period of generations. ... The modern evolutionary synthesis (often referred to simply as the modern synthesis), neo-Darwinian synthesis or neo-Darwinism, brings together Charles Darwins theory of the evolution of species by natural selection with Gregor Mendels theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance. ... The term natural science as the way in which different fields of study are defined is determined as much by historical convention as by the present day meaning of the words. ... The neutral theory of molecular evolution (also, simply the neutral theory of evolution) is an influential theory that was introduced with provocative effect by Motoo Kimura in the late 1960s and early 1970s. ... Niche construction is the process in which an organism alters its own environment in order to increase its chance of survival. ... In evolutionary biology, parallel evolution occurs when two independent species evolve together at the same time in the same ecospace and acquire similar characteristics. ... The classical Darwinian model of the evolution of cells is based on a mechanism whereby cells individually undergo mutation, with the process of natural selection then culling out those mutations which are less beneficial to the organism. ... The quasispecies [kwaa-zei-spee-seez] model is a description of the process of the Darwinian evolution of self-replicating entities within the framework of physical chemistry. ... The scientific method or process is considered fundamental to the scientific investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon physical evidence. ... Illustration from The Descent of Man and Selection in Relation to Sex by Charles Darwin showing the tufted coquette Lophornis ornatus, female on left, ornamented male on right. ... Teratogenesis is a medical term from the Greek, literally meaning monster making. ...

External links

• EvoWiki (http://www.evowiki.org/index.php/Main_Page) - A wiki dedicated to Evolution
• Evolution by Natural Selection (http://www.chains-of-reason.org/chains/evolution-by-natural-selection/introduction.htm) - An introduction to the logic of the theory of evolution by natural selection
• Evolution (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/index.html) - Provided by PBS.
• Howstuffworks.com - How Evolution Works (http://science.howstuffworks.com/evolution.htm/printable)
• Talk.Origins Archive (http://www.talkorigins.org) - see also talk.origins
• Charles Darwin's writings (http://pages.britishlibrary.net/charles.darwin/)
• Evolution News from Genome News Network (GNN) (http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/categories/index/genome/evolution.php)
• National Academy Press: Teaching About Evolution and the Nature of Science (http://www.nap.edu/books/0309063647/html/)