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Shevchenko BN350 desalination unit situated on the shore of the Caspian Sea.

Desalination, desalinization, or desalinisation refers to any of several processes that remove excess salt and other minerals from water. Desalination may also refer to the removal of salts and minerals more generally,^[1] as in soil desalination,^[2][3] but the focus of this article is on water desalination. Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... Image File history File links Shevchenko_BN350_desalinati. ... Image File history File links Shevchenko_BN350_desalinati. ... The Caspian Sea is the largest enclosed body of water on Earth by area, variously classed as the worlds largest lake or a full-fledged sea. ... R-phrases 36 S-phrases none Flash point Non-flammable Related Compounds Other anions NaF, NaBr, NaI Other cations LiCl, KCl, RbCl, CsCl, MgCl2, CaCl2 Related salts Sodium acetate Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation). ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Salinity control of soils in (irrigated) agricultural land // Controlling the problem of soil salinity, reclaiming salinized agricultural land. ...

Water is desalinated in order to be converted to fresh water suitable for consumption or irrigation, or, if almost all of the salt is removed, for human consumption. Sometimes the process produces table salt as a by-product. It is used on many ships and submarines. Most of the modern interest in desalination is focused on developing cost-effective ways of providing fresh water for human use in regions where the availability of water is limited. Irrigation is the artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops. ... This article is about modern humans. ... R-phrases 36 S-phrases none Flash point Non-flammable Related Compounds Other anions NaF, NaBr, NaI Other cations LiCl, KCl, RbCl, CsCl, MgCl2, CaCl2 Related salts Sodium acetate Supplementary data page Structure and properties n, εr, etc. ... A by-product is a secondary or incidental product deriving from a manufacturing process or chemical reaction, and is not the primary product or service being produced. ... For other uses, see Ship (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Submarine (disambiguation). ...

Large-scale desalination typically requires large amounts of energy as well as specialized, expensive infrastructure, making it very costly compared to the use of fresh water from rivers or groundwater. The large energy reserves of many Middle Eastern countries, along with their relative water scarcity, have led to extensive construction of desalination in this region. Saudi Arabia's desalination plants account for about 24% of total world capacity.^{[citation needed]} Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of lithologic formations. ...

The world's largest desalination plant is the Jebel Ali Desalination Plant (Phase 2) in the United Arab Emirates. It is a dual-purpose facility that uses multi-stage flash distillation and is capable of producing 300 million cubic meters (243,000 acre feet) of water per year.^[4] The largest desalination plant in the United States is located in Tampa Bay, Florida, which began desalinating 34.7 million cubic meters (28,740 acre feet) of water per year in December 2007. ^[5] The Tampa Bay plant runs at around 12% the output of the Jebel Ali Desalination Plants. A January 17, 2008, article in the Wall Street Journal states, "World-wide, 13,080 desalination plants produce more than 12 billion U.S. gallons (45,000,000 m³) of water a day, according to the International Desalination Association." ^[6] Jebel Ali (جبل علي in Arabic) (also sometime written Mina Jabal Ali) is a port (Mina in Arabic) town, located thirty-five kilometres southwest of the city of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. ... The cubic metre (symbol m³) is the SI derived unit of volume. ... An acre foot is a unit of volume commonly used in the United States in reference to large-scale water resources, such as reservoirs, aqueducts, canals, and river flows. ... Landsat image of Tampa Bay Tampa Bay is a large natural harbor and estuary along the Gulf of Mexico on the western coast of Florida, made up of Old Tampa Bay, Hillsborough Bay, McKay Bay, and the New Tampa Bay. ... This article is about the U.S. State of Florida. ... An acre foot is a unit of volume commonly used in the United States in reference to large-scale water resources, such as reservoirs, aqueducts, canals, and river flows. ... is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... The Wall Street Journal is an influential international daily newspaper published in New York City, New York with an average daily circulation of 1,800,607 (2002). ...

However, desalination can have a bad effect on the environment. What do we do with the excess brine or concentrated saline? We pump it back into the ocean where it can raise the oceans salinity levels slowly. If the salinity levels go up some marine life, plants or animals, may not be able to cope with the change of their environment. We need to come up with an idea of what to do with the brine that doesn't effect the world we live in so badly. Desalination plants can also effect the environment because of the huge amount of energy it takes to change the sea water into clean, drinkable, water. It takes an enormous amount of power to convert it and even if they use "Green" energy it will cost alot.

Methods

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1. Distillation
   1. Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF)
   2. Multiple-effect evaporator (MED|ME)
   3. Vapor-compression evaporation (VC)
   4. Evaporation/condensation
2. Ion exchange^[7][8]
3. Membrane processes
   1. Electrodialysis reversal (EDR)
   2. Reverse osmosis (RO)
   3. Nanofiltration (NF)
   4. Forward osmosis (FO)
   5. Membrane distillation (MD)
4. Freezing
5. Geothermal desalination
6. Solar humidification (HDH, MEH)
7. Methane hydrate crystallization
8. High grade water recycling
9. RF Induced Hyperthermia
10. Seawater greenhouse

As of July 2004, the two leading methods were reverse osmosis (47.2% of installed capacity world-wide) and multi-stage flash (36.5%).^{[9][not in citation given]} The traditional process used in these operations is vacuum distillation—essentially the boiling of water at less than atmospheric pressure and thus a much lower temperature than normal. This is due to the fact that the boiling of a liquid occurs when the vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases with temperature. Thus, because of the reduced temperature, energy is saved. Image File history File links Question_book-3. ... Image File history File links Wikitext. ... Laboratory distillation set-up: 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed control 13: Stirrer/heat plate... Multi-stage flash distillation is a desalination process that distills sea water by flashing a portion of the water into steam in multiple stages. ... In chemical engineering, a multiple-effect evaporator is an apparatus for efficiently using the heat of steam to evaporate water. ... Vapor-compression evaporation is the evaporation method by which a blower, compressor or jet ejector is used to compress, and thus, increase the temperature of the vapor produced. ... Vaporization redirects here. ... For other uses, see Condensation (disambiguation). ... Ion exchange is defined as an exchange of ions between two electrolytes. ... This article or section should include material from Net flux A membrane is a thin, typically planar structure or material that separates two environments. ... EDR desalination is an electrodialysis reversal desalination membrane process that has been commercially used since the early 1960s. ... Reverse osmosis (RO) is a separation process that uses pressure to force a solution through a membrane that retains the solute on one side and allows the pure solvent to pass to the other side. ... Nanofiltration is a relatively recent membrane process used most often with low TDS waters such as surface water and fresh groundwater, with the purpose of softening (polyvalent cation removal) and removal of disinfection by-product precursors such as natural organic matter and synthetic organic matter [1] [2]. Nanofiltration is also... Forward Osmosis is an osmotic process that, like reverse osmosis, uses a semi-permeable membrane to effect separation of water from dissolved solutes. ... In physics and chemistry, freezing is the process whereby a liquid turns to a solid when cold enough. ... Geothermal desalination is an experimental process under development for the production of fresh water using heat energy extracted from underground rocks. ... The Solar Humidification-Dehumidification-Method (HDH) is a thermal desalination method. ... Burning ice. Methane released by heating burns, water drips. ... Recycled water is wastewater that has been recovered for potable or nonpotable use, such as reclaimed water. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Vapor pressure is the pressure of a vapor in equilibrium with its non-vapor phases. ...

In the last decade, membrane processes have grown very fast, and most new facilities use reverse osmosis technology.^{[citation needed]} Membrane processes use semi-permeable membranes and pressure to separate salts from water.^{[citation needed]} Membrane systems typically use less energy than thermal distillation, which has led to a reduction in overall desalination costs over the past decade. Desalination remains energy intensive, however, and future costs will continue to depend on the price of both energy and desalination technology.^{[citation needed]} Reverse osmosis (RO) is a separation process that uses pressure to force a solution through a membrane that retains the solute on one side and allows the pure solvent to pass to the other side. ...

Considerations and criticism

Co-generation

Cogeneration is the process of using excess heat from power production to accomplish another task. In the sense of desalination, cogeneration is the production of potable water from seawater or brackish groundwater in an integrated, or "dual-purpose", facility in which a power plant is used as the source of energy for the desalination process. The facility’s energy production may be dedicated entirely to the production of potable water (a stand-alone facility), or excess energy may be produced and incorporated into the energy grid (a true cogeneration facility). There are various forms of cogeneration, and theoretically any form of energy production could be used. However, the majority of current and planned cogeneration desalination plants use either fossil fuels or nuclear power as their source of energy. Most plants are located in the Middle East or North Africa, due to their petroleum resources and subsidies. The advantage of dual-purpose facilities is that they can be more efficient in energy consumption, thus making desalination a more viable option for drinking water in areas of scarce water resources. ^[10][11] For other uses, see CHP. Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a heat engine or a power station to simultaneously generate both electricity and useful heat. ... Drinking water This article focuses on water as we experience it every day. ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ... This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ...  Northern Africa (UN subregion)  geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Africa. ...

In a December 26, 2007 opinion column in the The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Nolan Hertel, a professor of nuclear and radiological engineering at Georgia Tech, wrote, "... nuclear reactors can be used... to produce large amounts of potable water. The process is already in use in a number of places around the world, from India to Japan and Russia. Eight nuclear reactors coupled to desalination plants are operating in Japan alone... nuclear desalination plants could be a source of large amounts of potable water transported by pipelines hundreds of miles inland..." The Atlanta Journal-Constitution is the only major daily newspaper in Atlanta and its suburbs. ... The Georgia Institute of Technology, commonly known as Georgia Tech, is a public, coeducational research university, part of the University System of Georgia, and located in Atlanta, Georgia, USA, with satellite campuses in Savannah, Georgia, Metz, France, Shanghai, China, and Singapore. ...

Additionally, the current trend in dual-purpose facilities is hybrid configurations, in which the permeate from an RO desalination component is mixed with distillate from thermal desalination. Basically, two or more desalination processes are combined along with power production. The advantage to hybrid configurations is two qualities, such facilities have already been implemented in Saudi Arabia at Jeddah and Yambu-Medina.^[12] , Nickname: Location of Jeddah Coordinates: , Country Province Established 500+ BC Joint Saudi Arabia 1925 Government  - Mayor Adil Faqeeh  - City Governor Mishal Al-Saud  - Provincial Governor Khalid al Faisal Area  - Urban 1,320 km² (509. ...

Economics

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A numerical amount of factors determine the capital and operating costs for desalination: capacity and type of facility, location, feed water, labor, energy, financing and concentrate disposal. Desalination stills now control pressure, temperature and brine concentrations to optimize the water extraction efficiency. Nuclear-powered desalination might be economical on a large scale, and there is a pilot plant in the former USSR.^[13] This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ... The fast breeder or fast breeder reactor (FBR) is a fast neutron reactor designed to breed fuel by producing more fissile material than it consumes. ...

Critics point to the high costs of desalination technologies, especially for poor third world countries, the impracticability and cost of transporting or piping massive amounts of desalinated seawater throughout the interiors of large countries, and the byproduct of concentrated seawater, which some environmentalists have claimed "is a major cause of marine pollution when dumped back into the oceans at high temperatures"^[14]

It should be noted that typically the reverse osmosis technology that is used to desalinate water does not produce this "hot water" as a byproduct. Additionally, depending on the prevailing currents of receiving waters, the seawater concentrate byproduct can be diluted and dispersed to background levels within relatively short distances of the ocean outlet.

While noting that costs are falling, and generally positive about the technology for affluent areas that are proximate to oceans, one study argues that "Desalinated water may be a solution for some water-stress regions, but not for places that are poor, deep in the interior of a continent, or at high elevation. Unfortunately, that includes some of the places with biggest water problems." and "Indeed, one needs to lift the water by 2000 m, or transport it over more than 1600 km to get transport costs equal to the desalination costs. Thus, it may be more economical to transport fresh water from somewhere else than to desalinate it. In places far from the sea, like New Delhi, or in high places, like Mexico City, high transport costs would add to the high desalination costs. Desalinated water is also expensive in places that are both somewhat far from the sea and somewhat high, such as Riyadh and Harare. In places close to the ocean, the dominant cost is desalination, not transport; the process would therefore be less expensive in places like Beijing, Bangkok, Zaragoza, Phoenix, and, of course, coastal cities like Tripoli."^[15] After being desalinized at Jubail, Saudi Arabia, water is pumped 200 miles inland though a pipeline to the capital city of Riyadh. ^[16] For cities on the coast, desalination is being increasingly viewed as an untapped and unlimited water storage. Location of Jubail, Saudi Arabia. ... Riyadh (Arabic: ar-Riyāḍ) is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. ...

Israel is now desalinizing water at a cost of US$0.53 per cubic meter.^[17] Singapore is desalinizing water for US$0.49 per cubic meter.^[18] Many large coastal cities in developed countries are considering the feasibility of seawater desalination, due to its cost effectiveness compared with other water supply options, which can include mandatory installation of rainwater tanks or stormwater harvesting infrastructure. Studies have shown that desalination is among the most cost-effective options for boosting water supply in major Australian state capitals.^{[citation needed]} The city of Perth has been successfully^{[citation needed]} operating a reverse osmosis seawater desalination plant since 2006, and the West Australian government has announced that a second plant will be built to service the city's needs. A desalination plant is to be built in Australia's largest city, Sydney, and Wonthaggi, Victoria in the near future.^[19] Location of Perth within Australia This article is about the metropolitan area of Perth, Western Australia. ... This article is about the metropolitan area in Australia. ...

The Perth desalination plant is powered partially by renewable energy from the Emu Downs Wind Farm^[20]. The Sydney plant will be powered entirely from renewable sources^[21], thereby eliminating harmful greenhouse gas emissions to the environment, a common argument used against seawater desalination due to the energy requirements of the technology. The purchase or production of renewable energy to power desalination plants naturally adds to the capital and/or operating costs of desalination. However, recent experience in Perth and Sydney indicates that the additional cost is acceptable to communities, as a city may then augment its water supply without doing environmental harm to the atmosphere. The Gold Coast desalination plant will be powered entirely from fossil fuels and at a time when the coal fired power stations have significantly reduced capacity due to the drought. At a rate of over 4 kWh per cubic meter to produce this will be the most expensive source of water in Australia. The 80 MW Emu Downs Wind Farm ( ) is a joint development between Stanwell Corporation and Griffin Energy and construction of the $180 million project commenced in November 2005. ...

In December of 2007 the South Australian Government announced that it would build a seawater desalination plant for the city of Adelaide, Australia located at Port Stanvac. The desalination plant is to be funded by raising water rates to achieve full cost recovery. [1] [2] An online, unscientific poll showed that nearly 60% of votes cast were in favor of raising water rates to pay for desalination. [3] Lonsdale is an industrial suburb of Adelaide, South Australia. ...

A January 17, 2008 article in the Wall. St. Journal states, "In November, Connecticut-based Poseidon Resources Corp. won a key regulatory approval to build a [US]$300 million water-desalination plant in Carlsbad, north of San Diego. The facility would be the largest in the Western Hemisphere, producing 50 million [U.S.] gallons [190,000 m³] of drinking water a day, enough to supply about 100,000 homes... Improved technology has cut the cost of desalination in half in the past decade, making it more competitive... Poseidon plans to sell the water for about [US]$950 per acre-foot [1200 m³]. That compares with an average [US]$700 an acre-foot [1200 m³] that local agencies now pay for water." [4] $1,000 per acre-foot works out to $3.06 for 1,000 gallons, which is the unit of water measurement that residential water users are accustomed to being billed in. [5] is the 17th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... the traditional English name for the city and spa Karlovy Vary, Czech Republic Carlsbad, California Carlsbad, New Mexico, with Carlsbad Caverns National Park nearby Carlsbad, Texas ... Flag Seal Nickname: Americas Finest City Location Location of San Diego within San Diego County Coordinates , Government County San Diego Mayor City Attorney         City Council District One District Two District Three District Four District Five District Six District Seven District Eight Jerry Sanders (R) Michael Aguirre Scott Peters Kevin... An acre foot is a unit of volume commonly used in the United States in reference to large-scale water resources, such as reservoirs, aqueducts, canals, and river flows. ...

Geographical processes

One of the main environmental considerations of ocean water desalination plants is the impact of the open ocean water intakes^{[citation needed]}, especially when co-located with power plants. Many proposed ocean desalination plants initial plans relied on these intakes despite perpetuating ongoing huge impacts on marine life^{[citation needed]}. In the United States, due to a recent court ruling under the Clean Water Act these intakes are no longer viable without reducing mortality by ninety percent of the life in the ocean; the plankton, fish eggs and fish larvae.^[22] There are alternatives including beach wells that eliminate this concern, but require more energy and higher costs while limiting output.^[23] Other environmental concerns include air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions from the power plants that provide electricity and/or thermal energy to the desalination plants. A power station (also power plant) is a facility for the generation of electric power. ... For Clean Water Act of Ontario, Canada, see Clean Water Act (Ontario). ... This article is about the real-life under-sea organisms. ... Air pollution is the modification of the natural characteristics of the atmosphere by a chemical, particulate matter, or biological agent. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ...

Regardless of the method used, there is always a highly concentrated waste product consisting of everything that was removed from the created fresh water. This is sometimes referred to as brine, which is also a common term for the byproduct of recycled water schemes that is often disposed of in the ocean. These concentrates are classified by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as industrial wastes. With coastal facilities, it may be possible to return it to the sea without harm if this concentrate does not exceed the normal ocean salinity gradients to which osmoregulators are accustomed. Reverse osmosis, for instance, may require the disposal of wastewater with salinity twice that of normal seawater. The benthic community cannot accommodate such an extreme change in salinity and many filter-feeding animals would be destroyed when the water is returned to the ocean. This presents an increasing problem further inland, where one needs to avoid ruining existing fresh water supplies such as ponds, rivers and aquifers. As such, proper disposal of concentrate needs to be investigated during the design phases. For the village on the Isle of Wight, see Freshwater, Isle of Wight. ... For the sports equipment manufacturer, see Brine, Corp. ... EPA redirects here. ... Industrial waste is a waste caused by industrial factories or mills. ... Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the osmotic pressure of bodily fluids to maintain the homeostasis of the bodys water content; that is it keeps the bodys fluids from becoming too dilute or too concentrated. ... Seagrass growing off the coast of the Florida Keys. ...

To limit the environmental impact of returning the brine to the ocean, it can be diluted with another stream of water entering the ocean, such as the outfall of a wastewater treatment plant or power plant. While seawater power plant cooling water outfalls are not freshwater like wastewater treatment plant outfalls, the salinity of the brine will still be reduced. If the power plant is medium to large sized and the desalination plant is not enormous, the flow of the power plant's cooling water is likely to be at least several times larger than that of the desalination plant. Another method to reduce the increase in salinity is to spread the brine over a very large area so that there is only a slight increase in salinity. For example, once the pipeline containing the brine reaches the sea floor, it can split off into many branches, each one releasing the brine gradually along its length through small holes. This method can be used in combination with the joining of the brine with power plant or wastewater plant outfalls. Also called Wastewater treatment works Sewage treatment – treatment and disposal of human waste. ...

The concentrated seawater has the potential to harm ecosystems, especially marine environments in regions with low turbidity and high evaporation that already have elevated salinity. Examples of such locations are the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and, in particular, coral lagoons of atolls and other tropical islands around the world^{[citation needed]}. Because the brine is more dense than the surrounding sea water due to the higher solute concentration, discharge into water bodies means that the ecosystems on the bed of the water body are most at risk because the brine sinks and remains there long enough to damage the ecosystems. Careful re-introduction can minimize this problem^{[citation needed]}. For example, for the desalination plant and ocean outlet structures to be built in Sydney from late 2007, the water authority states that the ocean outlets will be placed in locations at the seabed that will maximize the dispersal of the concentrated seawater, such that it will be indistinguishable from normal seawater between 50 meters and 75 meters from the outlet points. Sydney is fortunate to have typical oceanographic conditions off the coast that allow for such rapid dilution of the concentrated byproduct, thereby minimizing harm to the environment. A coral reef near the Hawaiian islands is an example of a complex marine ecosystem. ... Map of the Persian Gulf. ... Location of the Red Sea The Red Sea is an inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. ... Extant Subclasses and Orders Alcyonaria    Alcyonacea    Helioporacea Zoantharia    Antipatharia    Corallimorpharia    Scleractinia    Zoanthidea [1][2]  See Anthozoa for details For other uses, see Coral (disambiguation). ... This mid bay barrier in Narrabeen, a suburb of Sydney (Australia), has blocked what used to be a bay to form a lagoon. ... Portion of a Pacific atoll showing two islets on the ribbon or barrier reef separated by a deep pass between the ocean and the lagoon. ... A noontime scene from the Philippines on a day when the Sun is almost directly overhead. ...

In Perth, Australia, in 2007, a wind powered desalination plant was opened. The water is sucked in from the ocean at only 0.1 meter per second, which is slow enough to let fish escape. The plant provides nearly 140,000 m³ of clean water per day. [6] The Kwinana Desalination Plant, located just south of Perth, Western Australia, turns water from the Indian Ocean into nearly 40 million gallons of drinking water per day. ...

Desalination compared to other water supply options

Increased water conservation and water use efficiency remain the most cost effective priority for supplying water.^[24] While comparing ocean water desalination to wastewater reclamation for drinking water shows desalination as the first option, using reclamation for irrigation and industrial use provides multiple benefits.^[25] Urban runoff and storm water capture also provide multiple benefits in treating, restoring and recharging groundwater.^[26] Water conservation refers to reducing use of fresh water, through technological or social methods. ...

Experimental techniques and other developments

In the past many novel desalination techniques have been researched with varying degrees of success. Some are still on the drawing board now while others have attracted research funding. For example, to offset the energy requirements of desalination, the U.S. Government is working to develop practical solar desalination. Solar desalination is the desalination of water using solar energy. ...

As an example of newer theoretical approaches for desalination, focusing specifically on maximizing energy efficiency and cost effectiveness, we may consider the Passarell Process.

Other approaches involve the use of geothermal energy. An example would be the work being done by SDSU CITI International Consortium for Advanced Technologies and Security.^[27] From an environmental and economic point of view, in most locations geothermal desalination can be preferable to using fossil groundwater or surface water for human needs, as in many regions the available surface and groundwater resources already have long been under severe stress. San Diego State University (SDSU), founded in 1897 as San Diego Normal School, is the largest and oldest higher education facility in the greater San Diego area (generally the City and County of San Diego), and is part of the California State University system. ... Geothermal desalination is an experimental process under development for the production of fresh water using heat energy extracted from underground rocks. ...

Recent research in the U.S. indicates that nanotube membranes may prove to be extremely effective for water filtration and may produce a viable water desalination process that would require substantially less energy than reverse osmosis.^[28] Nanotube membranes are films composed of open-ended nanotubes that are oriented perpendicularly to the surface of the film like the cells of a honeycomb. ...

Desalination plants

• Kwinana Desalination Plant
• Point Paterson Desalination Plant
• Seawater greenhouse

The Kwinana Desalination Plant, located just south of Perth, Western Australia, turns water from the Indian Ocean into nearly 40 million gallons of drinking water per day. ... The Point Paterson Desalination Plant is a planned municipal-scale solar-powered desalination plant with land-based brine disposal just outside Port Augusta, South Australia. ...

See also

• Biofuel from algae (cogeneration).
• Desalination in the United Kingdom
• Soil salination
• Solar Powered Desalination Unit

With the higher prices of oil, there is much interest in algaculture (farming algae) to harvest for making vegetable oil, biodiesel, bioethanol, biomethanol, biobutanol and other biofuels. ... For other uses, see CHP. Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a heat engine or a power station to simultaneously generate both electricity and useful heat. ... Visible salt deposits on the former bed of the Aral Sea Soil salination is the accumulation of free salts to such an extent that it leads to degradation of soils and vegetation. ... A Solar Powered Desalination Unit designed for remote communities has been tested in the Northern Territory of Australia. ...

References

Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the year. ... is the 215th day of the year (216th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 231st day of the year (232nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Also see: 2002 (number). ... is the 245th day of the year (246th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 343rd day of the year (344th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 362nd day of the year (363rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 124th day of the year (125th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 176th day of the year (177th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 232nd day of the year (233rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Pacific Institute is a non-profit research institute created in 1987 to provide independent research and policy analysis on issues at the intersection of development, environment, and security. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 263rd day of the year (264th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Pacific Institute is a non-profit research institute created in 1987 to provide independent research and policy analysis on issues at the intersection of development, environment, and security. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 263rd day of the year (264th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Pacific Institute is a non-profit research institute created in 1987 to provide independent research and policy analysis on issues at the intersection of development, environment, and security. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 263rd day of the year (264th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Aerial view of the lab and surrounding area, facing NW. The Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) in Livermore, California is a United States Department of Energy (DOE) national laboratory, managed and operated by Lawrence Livermore National Security, LLC (LLNS), a limited liability consortium comprised of Bechtel National, the University of... For information on Wikipedia press releases, see Wikipedia:Press releases. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 250th day of the year (251st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• GeoNoria Solar Desalination Process
• National Academies Press | Desalination: A National Perspective
• World Wildlife Fund | Desalination: option or distraction?
• International Desalination Association
• Desalination & Water Reuse - Official magazine of the International Desalination Association
• European Desalination Society
• IAEA - Nuclear Desalination
• DME - German Desalination Society
• Geothermal Desalination
• SDSU (San Diego State University) Center for Information Technology and Infrastructure (CITI) International Consortium of Advanced Technologies and Security
• "Desalination Journal" and Desalination Directory of the European Desalination Society
• Desalination by humidification and dehumidification of air: state of the art
• Zonnewater - optimized solar thermal desalination (distillation)
• SOLAR TOWER Project - Clean Electricity Generation for Desalination.
• Solar Desalination using the MEH-Method
• Article: Water issues prompt new look at desalination
• Desalination bibliography Library of Congress
• Water-Technology
• Cheap Drinking Water from the Ocean - Carbon nanotube-based membranes will dramatically cut the cost of desalination
• BBC2 Newsnight Film: Israel build the world's largest desalination plant
• Water Desalination Free pdf book
• Tampa Bay Water Seawater Desalination Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant on Tampa Bay
• Solar thermal-driven desalination plants based on membrane distillation
• Encyclopedia of Water Sciences, Engineering and Technology Resources
• Report on other byproducts of desalination plants
• wind-powered desalinization plant in Perth, Australia, is an example of how technology is insulating rich countries from impacts of climate change, while poor countries remain particularly vulnerable.
• The Desal Response Group
• Encyclopedia of Desalination and water and Water Resources
• Global Water Intelligence