Devadasis (Sanskrit: देवदासी, translation: "Servant of God") are cult prostitutes in the service of the Yellamma, the Hindu goddess of fertility.^[1] Sanskrit ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... Look up translate in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Religious prostitution, sacred prostitution, or temple prostitution is the practice of having sexual intercourse (with a person other than ones spouse) for a religious or sacred purpose. ... now. ... Bhavna says there are 300 million gods in Hinduism. ...

The term "Devadasi" originally described a Hindu religious practice in which girls were "married" to a deity. In addition to taking care of the temple, they learned and practiced Bharatanatyam and other classical Indian arts traditions, and enjoyed a high social status. Following the demise of the great Hindu kingdoms the practice degenerated. Pressure from the colonial "reform" movement led to suppression of the practice. Adherents of this movement considered devadasis immoral since they engaged in sex outside of the traditional concept of marriage, and described them as prostitutes. As a result of these social changes, devadasis were left without their traditional means of support and patronage. Colonial views on Devadasis are hotly disputed by several groups and organizations in India and by western academics.^[2][3][4][5] Bharatanatyam[1] is a classical dance form originating from Tamil Nadu[2][3][4][5][6], a state in Southern India. ...

In modern India the tradition has become associated with commercial sexual exploitation, as described in a recent report by the National Human Rights Commission of the Government of India.^[6] According to this report, "after initiation as devadasis, women migrate either to nearby towns or other far-off cities to practise prostitution" (p200). A study from 1990 recorded that 45.9% of devadasis in one particular district were prostitutes, while most the rest relied on manual labour and agriculture for their income.^[7] The practice of dedicating devadasis was declared illegal by the Government of Karnataka in 1982^[8] and the Government of Andhra Pradesh in 1988. However the practice is still prevalent in around 10 districts of north Karnataka and 14 districts in Andhra Pradesh.^[9]}.The high regard with which they were previously held has deteriorated in recent years due to their association with prostitution, and the practice has started to disappear.^[10]

Devadasis are also known by various other local terms. They are sometimes referred to as a caste; however, some question the accuracy of this usage. "According to the devadasis themselves there exists a devadasi 'way of life' or 'professional ethic' (vritti, murai) but not a devadasi jāti sub-caste. Later, the office of devadasi became hereditary but it did not confer the right to work without adequate qualification" (Amrit Srinivasan, 1985). Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social classification, that evolved due to the enormous diversity in India (where all three primary races met, not by forced slavery but by immigration). ... Jātis (the word literally means births) comprise the subcastes found within the four major castes, or varnas, of the Indian caste system. ... For other uses, see Jati. ...

Origin

Ancient and medieval history

Originally, devadasis were celibate all their life.^[11] Reference to dancing girls in temples is found in Kalidasa's "Meghadhoot". It is said that dancing girls were present at the time of worship in the Mahakal Temple of Ujjain. Some scholars are of the opinion that probably the custom of dedicating girls to temples became quite common in the 6th century CE, as most of the Puranas containing reference to it have been written during this period. Several Puranas recommended that arrangements should be made to enlist the services of singing girls for worship at temples. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... This article includes a list of works cited but its sources remain unclear because it lacks in-text citations. ... , Ujjain   (Hindi:उज्जैन) (also known as Ujain, Ujjayini, Avanti, Avantikapuri) is an ancient city of central India, in the Malwa region of the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River. ... A scholar is either a student or someone who has achieved a mastery of some academic discipline, perhaps receiving financial support through a scholarship. ... Purana (Sanskrit: , meaning tales of ancient times) is the name of an ancient Indian genre (or a group of related genres) of Hindu or Jain literature (as distinct from oral tradition). ...

By the end of 10th century, the total number of devadasis in many temples was in direct proportion to the wealth and prestige of the temple. During the medieval period, they were regarded as a part of the normal establishment of temples; they occupied a rank next only to priests and their number often reached high proportions. For example, there were 400 devadasis attached to the temples at Tanjore and Travancore. This article is about religious workers. ... Thanjavur, also known as Tanjore, is a city in Tamil Nadu, in southeastern India. ... Flag for former princely state of Travancore Travancore or Thiruvithaamkoor (Malayalam: തിരുവിതാങ്കൂര്‍ [], തിരുവിതാംകൂര്‍ [], തിരുവിതാങ്കോട് []) was a princely state in India with its capital at Trivandrum (Thiruvananthapuram). ...

Local kings often invited temple dancers to dance in their courts, the occurrence of which created a new category of dancers, rajadasis, and modified the technique and themes of the recitals. A devadasi had to satisfy her own soul while she danced unwatched and offered herself to the god, but the rajadasi's dance was meant to be an entertainment.

The popularity of devadasis seems to have reached its pinnacle around 10th and 11th century CE. The rise and fall in the status of devadasis can be seen to be running parallel to the rise and fall of Hindu temples. Invaders from West Asia attained their first victory in India at the beginning of the second millennium CE. The destruction of temples by invaders started from the northwestern borders of the country and spread through the whole of the country. Thereafter the status of the temples fell very quickly in North India and slowly in South India. As the temples became poorer and lost their patron kings, and in some cases were destroyed, the devadasis were forced into a life of poverty, misery, and, in some cases, prostitution. Hinduism (known as in modern Indian languages[1]) is a religious tradition[2] that originated in the Indian subcontinent. ... Dark green region marks the approximate extent of northern India while the regions marked as light green lies within the sphere of north Indian influence. ... The geographical south of India includes all Indian territory below the 20th parallel. ... A boy from an East Cipinang trash dump slum in Jakarta, Indonesia shows what he found. ...

Devadasis in South India and the Chola empire

The Chola empire encourage the Devadasi system in its pure unadulterated form. This meant that men and women were dedicated to temple service. They developed the system of music and dance played during temple festivals. The Cholas were the most famous of the three dynasties that ruled ancient Tamil Nadu. ...

The rise of Chola empire in the 6th century AD coincided with the decline of Buddhism and Jainism in South India. According to certain researchers, former Buddhist nuns were forced to perform temple service as atonement for their previous heretic views. ^[12] Similary queens and princesses of defeated kings were forced to join the temple service to erase their identity.

Inscriptions reveal that the 400 dancers, their gurus and orchestras, were maintained by the Brihadeesvarar temple, Thanjavur, with munificent grants, including the daily disbursement of oil, turmeric, betel leaves and nuts! ^[13]

Nattuvanars were the male accompanists of the Devadasi during her performance. They conduct the music orchestra while the devadasi performed her service. Inscriptions reveal that nattuvanars were used to teach the Chola princess Kuntavai a thousand years ago. ^[14]

As the chola empire expanded in wealth and size, they built more temples throughout their country. Soon other emperors started imitating the Chola empire and developed the system.

Mahari Devadasi of Orissa

Unlike other parts of India, the Devadasis of the Jagannath temple complex of Orissa have never practised prostitution, and have been expected to remain celibate from the time they became Devadasis. Devadasi is a name given to a group of women who danced in the temple premises. The word Devadasi or Mahari means "those great women who can control natural human impulses, their five senses and can submit themselves completely to God (Vachaspati)." Mahari means Mohan Nari that is, the woman belonging to God. Sri Chaitanayadev had defined Devadasis as 'Sebaets' who served God through dance and music. Pankaj Charan Das, the oldest Guru of Odissi classical dance, who comes from a Mahari family, explains Mahari as Maha Ripu -Ari (one who conquers the five main ripus - enemies ). ^[15]

The beginning the decline of the Mahari tradition started with the Muslim invasion of Orissa in 14th century. They were exploited and for the first time the Purdah system appeared, ostensibly to guard the women-folk. The gradual degeneration of the Devadasi tradition, which had started since the attack of Sultan Shah in 1360 A.D. continued. This was because the social, cultural & political scene was changing rapidly and women, in general, were losing their independence and power.

The Orissa Gazette of 1956 lists 9 Devadasis and 11 temple musicians. By 1980, only 4 Devadasis were left – Harapriya, Kokilprabha, Paroshmoni and Shashimoni. Now only Shashimoni and Paroshmoni are alive. The daily ritualistic dance had stopped long ago. Now this twosome serve in a few of the yearly temple rituals like Nabakalebar, Nanda Utsav and Duar Paka during Bahura jatra.^[16]

The Orissa Gazette of 1956 mentions some occasions where the Devadasis danced. They had two daily rituals. The bahar gaunis would dance at the Sakhala Dhupa. Lord Jagannath, after breakfast, would give Darshan to the bhaktas, the devotees. In the main hall, a Devadasi accompanied by musicians and the Rajguru, the court guru, would dance, standing near the Garuda sthambha. This dance could be watched by the audience. They would perform only pure dance here. The bhitar gauni would sing at the Badashringhar, the main ceremony for ornamenting and dressing the God. Lord Jagannath, at bedtime, would be first served by male Sebaets- they would fan Him and decorate Him with flowers. After they would leave, a bhitar gauni would then enter the room, stand near the door (Jaya Bijay) and sing Geetagovinda songs, and perhaps perform a ritualistic dance. After a while, she would come out and announce that the Lord has gone to sleep and then the guard would close the main gate.

Yellamma cult of Karnataka in South India

In the state of Karnataka in the region of South India the devadasi system was followed for over 10 centuries. The chief among them was the Yellamma cult ^[17]. The stories seem to indicate that in the state of Karnataka devadasis originated from Brahmin women who were thrown out of their homes by their husbands. , Karnataka (Kannada: , IPA:  ) is a state in the southern part of India. ... The geographical south of India includes all Indian territory below the 20th parallel. ...

There are many stories about the origin of the Yellamma cult. The most prevalent one says that Renuka was the daughter of a Brahmin, married to sage Jamadagni and was the mother of five sons. She used to bring water from the river Malaprabha for the sage's worship and rituals. One day while she was at the river, she saw a group of youths engaged themselves in water sports and forgot to return home in time which made Jamadagni to suspect her chastity. He ordered his sons one by one to punish their mother but four of them refused on one pretext or the other. The sage cursed them to become eunuchs and got her beheaded by his fifth son, Parashuram. To everybody's astonishment, Renuka's head multiplied by tens and hundreds and moved to different regions. This miracle made her four eunuch sons and others to become her followers, and worship her head. ^[18].

The followers of Yellamma, who are mostly poor, and illiterate, take a vow to dedicate themselves, their spouses, or their children in the service of Goddess Yellamma when they are unable to face the hardships of life. The typical situations include life-threatening diseases, infertility, and dire financial troubles. These are the people who are primarily responsible for propagating Goddess Yellamma's virtues and achievements and glorify the Goddess. An elaborate ceremony is held in order to initiate the Jogathis (female) and Jogappa (male) volunteers in the service of Goddess Yellamma. New followers have to bathe in three holy ponds and proceed to the head priest accompanied by community elders and other members of the family. The priests give them a long sermon on what they have to do please Yellamma. They have to identify themselves with the very poor and unfortunate ones and serve the society. At least twice a year they have to visit the Yellamma shrine on full moon days to express and confirm their obedience. During this semi-annual ritual, they have to observe preferably total nudity. If not, they have to cover their bodies with Neem foliage or scanty clothes. Such rituals, especially in the last decade, have become heavily publicized events due to the oversexed youngsters and tourists who gather around such pilgrimage centers to have glimpses of nude and semi-nude human bodies. ^[19].

Colonial era

Toward the end of the 19th century, there was a spurt of social movements in India. Nationalism and search for national identity led to social movements relating to devadasis. These movements can be classified into two categories: Reformists/Abolitionists and Revivalists. Eugène Delacroixs Liberty Leading the People, symbolising French nationalism during the July Revolution 1830. ...

Reformists and abolitionists

Reformists and Abolitionists, under the pressure of the European Christian priests and missionaries, conceived of the devadasi practice as a social evil and considered every Devadasi to be a prostitute. The first anti-nautch and anti-dedication movement was launched in 1882. "Their main aim was to do away with this system. Reform lobbyists were drawn mainly from missionaries, doctors, journalists and social workers. They urged the abolition of all ceremonies and procedures by which young girls dedicated themselves as Devadasis of Hindu shrines. They organized seminars and conferences to create a public opinion against the Devadasi system. In the later part of 1892 an appeal was made to the Viceroy and Governor General of India and to the Governor of Madras. This appeal also defines the position of the anti-nautch movement" (Jogan Shankar, 1990). Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations · Other religions Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      Christianity is... Nautch, a word used in several languages of North India, is an Indian term for dance, and indicates several forms of popular dancing styles by young girls, generally called the Nautch girls. ... For other uses, see Missionary (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Journalist (disambiguation). ... A social worker is a person employed in the administration of charity, social service, welfare, and poverty agencies, advocacy, or religious outreach programs. ...

For the reform lobbyists— Christian missionaries, doctors, journalists, administrators and social workers— strongly influenced by Christian morality and religion, it was precisely these features of the devadasi institution which were reprehensible in the utmost. The portrayal of the devadasi system as "prostitution" sought to advertise the grotesqueness of the subject population for political ends, while the British colonial authorities officially maintained most brothels in India. For those who supported imperialism on the grounds of its "civilizing" function, programs of reform were not without their ideological rewards.

Some journals and newspapers like The Indian Social Reformer and Lahore Purity Servant supported the Reformist or Abolitionist movement. The movement initially concentrated on building public opinion and enlisting members to refuse to attend nautch parties as well as to refuse to invite devadasis to festivities at their homes. Around 1899, the anti-nautch and puritan movement turned its attention to stopping dedications. The anti-nautch movement paved the way for anti-dedication movement.

The social reform movements, spearheaded by Ram Mohan Roy, Periyar, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Govind Ranade, Dhondo Keshav Karve, and other prominent social thinkers, questioned the practice of devadasi system and pleaded for its abolition. Raja Ram Mohan Roy is regarded as the Father of the Bengal Renaissance Ram Mohan Roy, also written as Rammohun Roy, or Raja Ram Mohun Roy (Bangla: রাজা রামমোহন রায়, Raja Rammohon Rae), (May 22, 1772 – September 27, 1833) was the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, one of the first Indian socio-religious... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Indian postal stamp on Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (Bangla: ঈশ্বর চন্দ্র বিদ্যাসাগর) (1820-1891) (born Ishwar Chandra Bandopadhyay) was a Bengali polymath. ... Maharshi Dhondo Keshav Karve fought throughout his life for the upliftment of women. ...

Revivalists

The revival movement consciously stepped outside the requirements of state electoral politics and western scientific traditions. The movement received strong support from the Theosophical Society of India, whose anti-official stance and strong interest in Indian home rule bound them with the revival of dance and music. Theosophical Society of India // Founder H.P. Blavatsky and others founded the Theosophical Society. ...

Pioneers like Madam H.P. Blavatsky and Colonel H.S. Olcott, the founders of the Theosophical movement, had undertaken an extensive tour of South India and propagated the revival of devadasi institutions and the associated art of sadir. They gained support from all sections of the native elite by their public denouncement of western Christian morality and materialism. In 1882, the Theosophical Society of India had set up its headquarters in Adyar, Chennai with the set goal of working towards the restoration of India's ancient glory in art, science, and philosophy. Helena Blavatsky Helena Petrovna Hahn (also Hélène) (July 31, 1831 (O.S.) (August 12, 1831 (N.S.)) - May 8, 1891 London), better known as Helena Blavatsky (Russian: ) or Madame Blavatsky, born Helena von Hahn, was a founder of the Theosophical Society. ... Colonel Henry Steel Olcott (1832-1907), founder and first president of the Theosophical Society, is well-known as the first prominent person of Western descent to make a formal conversion to Buddhism. ... Theosophy is a word and a concept known anciently, commonly understood in the modern era to describe the studies of religious philosophy and metaphysics originating with Helena Petrovna Blavatsky from the 1870s. ... Adyar or Adayar is a large neighborhood south of Chennai (previously Madras). ... , “Madras” redirects here. ... This article is about the philosophical concept of Art. ... A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor demonstrates the Meissner effect. ... For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ...

The support later given to a revival of sadir as Bharatnatyam by the Theosophical Society was largely due to the efforts of Rukmini Devi Arundale, an eminent theosophist herself. She took up the cause of evolution of sadir and Bharatnatyam, another traditional dance. The tone or style of this article or section may not be appropriate for Wikipedia. ... Seal of the Theosophical Society Theosophy is a body of belief which holds that all religions are attempts by man to ascertain the Divine, and as such each religion has a portion of the truth. ... A Bharatanatyam Dancer Bharatanatyam (also spelled Bharathanatyam, Bharatnatyam or Bharata Natyam) is a South Indian classical dance form. ...

The Theosophical Society provided the necessary funds and organization to back Arundale as the champion for India’s renaissance in the arts, especially Bharatnatyam. The revivalists tried to present the idealistic view of the institution of devadasi. According to their view, it was the model of the ancient temple dancer as pure, sacred, and chaste women, as they were originally. The Theosophical Society was the organization formed to advance the spiritual doctrines and altruistic living known as Theosophy. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... SACRED SACRED was a Cubesat built by the Student Satellite Program of the University of Arizona. ...

They stressed that the dance of devadasi was a form of "natya yoga" to enhance an individual's spiritual plane. The revivalists wanted to preserve the traditional form of sadir dance by purifying it. As a consequence of purification, some modifications were introduced into the content of the dance, which was strongly criticized by dancer Balasaraswati and other prominent representatives of the traditional devadasi culture. The revivalists mostly belonged to Brahmin dominated Theosophical circles. Many Brahmin girls started to learn the dance from devadasis. Bharata natyam dance Natya Yoga, popularly known as Dance Yoga, the all-inclusive spiritual path of action, is a combination of mainly Bhakti Yoga and Karma Yoga with many elements of Hatha Yoga and Raja Yoga. ... Balasaraswati (13th May 1918-9th February 1984) was a celebrated Indian dancer, and her rendering of Bharatanatyam, a classical dance style, made this style of dancing of south India well known in different parts of India, as also many parts of the world. ...

In contrast to the abolitionist portrayal of devadasis as prostitutes, the revivalists sketched them as nuns in order to defend and legitimize the institution. Still others claim that a devadasi was neither a prostitute nor a nun: "She was a professional artist who did not suppress or deny her feminine skills. Devadasi women kept classical dance forms, like Bharatnatyam and Odisee, alive for centuries." For other uses, see Nun (disambiguation). ...

Legislative initiatives

The first legal initiative to outlaw the devadasi system dates back to the 1934 Bombay Devadasi Protection Act. This act pertained to the Bombay province as it existed in the British Raj. The Bombay Devadasi Protection Act made dedication of women illegal, whether consensual or not. According to this act, marriage by a devadasi was to be considered lawful and valid, and the children from such wedlock were to be treated as legitimate. The Act also laid down grounds for punitive action that could be taken against any person or persons found to be involved in dedications, except the woman who was being dedicated. Those found guilty of such acts could face a year’s imprisonment, a fine, or both. The 1934 Act also provided rules, which were aimed at protecting the interests of the devadasis. Whenever there was a dispute over ownership of land involving a devadasi, the local Collector was expected to intervene. This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ... Anthem God Save The King The British Indian Empire, 1909 Capital Calcutta (until 1912), New Delhi (after 1912) Language(s) Hindustani, English and many others Government Monarchy Emperor of India  - 1858-1901 Victoria¹  - 1901-1910 Edward VII  - 1910-1936 George V  - 1936 Edward VIII  - 1936-1947 George VI Viceroy²  - 1858... Marriage is a relationship and bond, most commonly between a man and a woman, that plays a key role in the definition of many families. ...

In 1947, the year of independence, the Madras Devadasi Prevention of Dedication Act outlawed dedication in the southern province now known as Karnataka. , Karnataka (Kannada: , IPA:  ) is a state in the southern part of India. ...

Devadasi practices

A photograph of two Devadasis taken in 1920s in Tamilnadu, South India

The devadasi practices have changed considerably over the last centuries. Amrit Srinivasan has described devadasi practices in Tamilnadu: Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (436x640, 77 KB) Summary A photograph of two Devadasis taken in 1920s Chennai in India. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (436x640, 77 KB) Summary A photograph of two Devadasis taken in 1920s Chennai in India. ... 1920 (MCMXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... The geographical south of India includes all Indian territory below the 20th parallel. ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ...

Traditionally the young devadasi underwent a ceremony of dedication to the deity of the local temple which resembled in its ritual structure the upper caste Tamil marriage ceremony. Following this ceremony, she was set apart from her non-dedicated sisters in that she was not permitted to marry and her celibate or unmarried status was legal in customary terms. Significantly, however she was not prevented from leading a normal life involving sex with individuals of her choice and childbearing. The very rituals which marked and confirmed her incorporation into temple service also committed her to the rigorous emotional and physical training in the classical dance, her hereditary profession. In addition, they served to advertise in a perfectly open and public manner her availability for sexual liaisons with a proper patron and protector. Very often in fact, the costs of temple dedication were met by a man who wished thus to anticipate a particular devadasi's favours after she had attained puberty. It was crucially a women's 'dedicated' status which made it a symbol of social prestige and privilege to maintain her. The devadasi's sexual partner was always chosen by 'arrangement' with her mother and grandmother acting as prime movers in the veto system. Alliance with a Muslim, a Christian, or a lower caste was forbidden while a Brahmin or member of the royal elite was preferred for the good breeding and/or wealth he would bring into the family. The non-domestic nature of the contract was an understood part of the agreement with the devadasi owing the man neither any householding services nor her offspring. The children in turn could not hope to make any legal claim on the ancestral property of their father whom they met largely in their mother's home when he came to visit. Marriage is an interpersonal relationship with governmental, social, or religious recognition, usually intimate and sexual, and often created as a contract, or through civil process. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Puberty refers to the process of physical changes by which a childs body becomes an adult body capable of reproduction. ... There is also a collection of Hadith called Sahih Muslim A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Persian: Mosalman or Mosalmon Urdu: مسلمان, Turkish: Müslüman, Albanian: Mysliman, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of the religion of Islam. ... For other uses, see Christian (disambiguation). ... Caste systems are traditional, hereditary systems of social classification, that evolved due to the enormous diversity in India (where all three primary races met, not by forced slavery but by immigration). ... The term Brahmin denotes both a member of the priestly class in the Hindu varna system, and a member of the highest caste in the caste system of Hindu society. ...

Reasons for dedication in modern times

Even though the majority of the girls dedicated in the past few years or decades come from families with no tradition of devadasis, all of them come from communities with a strong history of the practice. For example, a village named Yellampura in Karnataka, 95 percent of households of Holers have practicing devadasis, which is the highest percentage in the village, followed by Madars. , Karnataka (Kannada: , IPA:  ) is a state in the southern part of India. ...

The system has an obvious economic basis. The sanctions provided by social custom and apparently by religion, combined with economic pressures, have pushed girls from poor families into becoming the wives of a deity. The three factors (religious, social, and economic) are interlinked.

In a 1993 study, Asha Ramesh found that:

Dedication to the Goddess or God was justified on the following grounds:
(a) If the parents were childless, they vowed to dedicate their first child if it happened to be girl.
(b) If there were no sons in the family, the girl child was dedicated and could not marry as she becomes a 'son' for the family (earning the family’s livelihood).
Yet another economic reason contributed to the dedications. If the girl's family had some property, the family ensured that it stayed within the family by turning the girl into 'son' by dedicating her.

Dedication process

From the late medieval period until 1910, the Pottukattu or tali-tying dedication ceremony, was a widely advertised community event requiring the full cooperation of the local religious authorities. It initiates the a young girl into the devadasi profession and is performed in the temple by the priest. In the Brahminical tradition marriage is viewed as the only religious initiation (diksha) permissible to women. Thus the dedication is a symbolic "marriage" of the pubescent girl to the temple's deity.

In the sadanku or puberty ceremonies, the devadasi-initiate consummates her marriage with an emblem of the god borrowed from the temple as a stand-in 'bridegroom'. In practice this often means that the priest will have sexual intercourse with the devadasi in addition to the other nuptial rites that are performed at a typical Brahmin wedding. For instance, auspicious wedding songs celebrating sexual union are sung before the "couple". From then onward, the devadasi is considered a nitya sumangali: a woman eternally free from the adversity of widowhood. A groom waits for his bride. ... It has been suggested that Duration of sexual intercourse be merged into this article or section. ... The term Brahmin denotes both a member of the priestly class in the Hindu varna system, and a member of the highest caste in the caste system of Hindu society. ...

She would then perform her ritual and artistic duties in the temple. The puberty ceremonies were an occasion not only for temple honor, but also for community feasting and celebration in which the local elites also participated. The music and dance and public display of the girl also helped to attract patrons.

Life after dedication

A devadasi's life after dedication was obviously very different centuries ago. Nowadays

After dedication of a girl to the temple, she has to take bath every day early in the morning and should present herself at the temple during morning worship of Yellamma. She is not allowed to enter the sanctum sanctorum. But she will bow to the deity from outside. Thereafter she sweeps compound of the temple. Every Tuesday and Friday she goes for yoga along with senior jogatis (yoga teachers). During this period she learns innumerable songs in praise of Yellamma and her son Parashurama. If she shows some aptitude to learn playing instruments she will be given training by her elder jogatis. In Yellampura and other villages Devadasis do not dance but this is performed by eunuch companions. The main functions of Devadasis would be singing and playing stringed musical instruments and Jagate. They form a small group and go for joga, from house to house on every Tuesday and Friday (Jogan Shankar, 1990). Children bathing in a small metal bathtub Bathing is the immersion of the body in fluid, usually water, or an aqueous solution. ... now. ...

These religious duties are uncontested and are a widely celebrated part of the life of the devadasi temple servant.

Sexual Aspects

Although the original devadasis were brahmacharis their entire life, even the contemporary sexual aspects of the rituals that accompany dedication are now considered by many Hindus to be exploitative and not mandatory. Nevertheless this practice continues unabated in some places where a devadasi would usually acquire a "patron" after her deflowering ceremony. Patronship in a majority of cases is achieved at the time of the dedication ceremony itself. The patron who secures this right of spending the first night with the girl can pay a fixed sum of money to maintain a permanent liaison with the devadasi, pay to maintain a relationship for a fixed amount of time, or terminate the liaison after the deflowering ceremony. A permanent liaison with a patron does not bar the girl from entertaining other clients, unless he specifies otherwise. In case the girl entertains, other men have to leave the girl’s house when her patron comes. Brahmachari is a sacred word in India. ...

Social Status

Traditionally, no stigma was attached to the devadasi or to her children, and other members of their caste received them on terms of equality. The children of a devadasi enjoyed legitimacy and devadasis themselves were outwardly indistinguishable from married women of their own community.

Furthermore, a devadasi was believed to be immune from widowhood and was called akhanda saubhagyavati. Since she was wedded to a divine deity, she was supposed to be one of the especially welcome guests at weddings, and was regarded as bearer of fortune. At weddings, people would get a string of the tali (wedding lock) prepared by her and she threaded on it a few beads from her own necklace. The presence of a devadasi on any religious occasion in the house of an upper caste member was regarded as sacred and she was treated with due respect and was presented with gifts. For other senses of this word, see necklace (disambiguation). ...

Additional information

Statistical data

India's National Commission for Women, which is mandated to protect and promote the welfare of women, has collected information on the prevalence of devadasis in various states. The government of Orissa has stated that the devadasi system is not prevalent in the state. There is only one Devadasi in Orissa, in a Puri temple. Similarly the government of Tamil Nadu wrote that this system has been eradicated and there are now no devadasis in the state. Andhra Pradesh has identified 16,624 devadasis within its state and Karnataka has identified 22,941. The government of Maharashtra did not provide the information as sought by the Commission. However, the state government provided statistical data regarding the survey conducted by them to sanction a "Devadasi Maintenance Allowance". A total of 8,793 applications were received and after conducting a survey 6,314 were rejected and 2,479 devadasis were declared eligible for the allowance. At the time of sending the information, 1,432 Devadasis were receiving this allowance. , Orissa   (Oriya: ଓଡ଼ିଶା), is a state situated on the east coast of India. ... Puri can mean: Puri, a city in the Indian state of Orissa, which is famous for the Jagannath temple and the serene beaches located there . ... Tamil Nadu (தமிழ் நாடு, Land of the Tamils) is a state at the southern tip of India. ... “Andhra” redirects here. ... , Karnataka (Kannada: , IPA:  ) is a state in the southern part of India. ... , Maharashtra (Marathi: महाराष्ट्र , IPA:  , translation: Great Nation) is Indias third largest state in area and second largest in population after Uttar Pradesh. ...

In Andhra Pradesh, devadasi practice is prevalent in Karimnagar, Warangal, Nizamabad, Mahaboobnagar, Kurnool, Hyderabad, Ananthapur, Medak, Adilabad, Chittoor, Rangareddy, Nellore, Nalgonda, and Srikakulam. In Karnataka, the practice has been found to exist in Raichur, Bijapur, Belgaum, Dharwad, Bellari and Gulbarga. In Maharashtra, the devadasi practice exists in Pune, Sholapur, Kolhapur, Sangli, Mumbai, Lathur, Usmanabad, Satara, Sindhudurg and Nanded. , Karimnagar is a city and a Municipal Corporation in Karimnagar district is in the northern Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh state of India. ... , For the district of the same name, see Warangal district. ... See for the district information in Nizamabad district. ... , Map showing kurnool district Kurnool   is a city in Kurnool district in Andhra Pradesh state of southern India. ... Hyderabad is a district in Andhra Pradesh, India. ... Anantapur is a district and its administrative city in the southwest of the southern Indian state of Andhra Pradesh, on the border of the state of Karnataka. ... Medak is a city and a municipality in Medak District in Telangana region of Andhra Pradesh, India. ... Adilabad is a town and a municipality in Adilabad district in the state of Andhra Pradesh, India. ... , For the district information, see Chittoor district. ... Map showing rangareddi district Rangareddi District is a district in the Andhra Pradesh State of India. ... For the district with the same name, see Nellore district. ... , Nalgonda   is a town and a municipality in Nalgonda district in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh. ... Also see Srikakulam village in Krishna district. ... , Raichur is a town and a city municipal council in Raichur district in the Indian state of Karnataka. ... Bijapur (Kannada: ವಿಜಾಪುರ) is a district in the state of Karnataka in southern India. ... , Belgaum (proposed to be renamed Belagaavi) (Kannada: ಬೆಳಗಾವಿ, Marathi: बेळगांव;  ), also known as Belgaon, is a city and a municipal corporation in Belgaum district in the state of Karnataka, India. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Gulbarga is a town in the Indian state of Karnataka. ... , Pune (IPA: , Marathi: पुणे) is a city located in the western Indian state of Maharashtra. ... Solapur is a district in Maharashtra, India. ... Kolhapur   (Marathi:कोल्हापुर) is a city situated in the south west corner of Maharashtra, India. ... The twin cities of Sangli and Miraj are located in the Indian state of Maharashtra, nearly 400 kilometers southeast of Mumbai. ... , Bombay redirects here. ... For the moth genus, see Satara (moth). ... Sindhudurg fortress Sindhudurg(Marathi सिंधुदुर्ग) is a fortress which occupies an islet in the Arabian Sea, just of the coast of Maharashtra in western India. ... , Nanded (Marathi: नांदेड) is a the second largest city in Marathwada region of Maharashtra state of India. ...

References

1. ^ Damian Grammaticas (2007-06-08). Slaves to the goddess of fertility (English). BBC News. Retrieved on 2007-06-18.
2. ^ Crooke, W., Prostitution?, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. X, Eds., James Hastings and Clark Edinburg, Second Impression, 1930.
3. ^ Iyer, L.A.K, Devadasis in South India: Their Traditional Origin And Development, Man in India, Vol.7, No. 47, 1927.
4. ^ http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/h_prostitution.asp
5. ^ Donors, Devotees, and Daughters of God: Temple Women in Medieval Tamil NaduLeslie C. Orre
6. ^ P.M. Nair, IPS (July 18, 2004). "A Report on Trafficking in Women and Children in India 2002-2003". National Human Rights Commission, Government of India. Retrieved on [[2007-01-31]].
7. ^ Jogan Shankar (2004). "Devadasi Cult - A Sociological Analysis (Second Revised Edition)". New Delhi - Ashish Publishing House.
8. ^ (February 2, 1982) "Devadasis (Prohibition of Dedication) Act, 1982". Karmataka Gazette IV-2A (Extraordinary) No. 75. Government of Karnataka. Retrieved on [[2007-01-31]]. 
9. ^ "`Project Combat' launched to eradicate `Devadasi' system", The Hindu, 2006-01-30. Retrieved on 2007-01-31. 
10. ^ Devadasi. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved July 4, 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica
11. ^ World Vision - India: Girls Sacrificed To Tradition - Former Religious Prostitutes Help Those Still Trapped
12. ^ http://ambedkar.org/buddhism/Devadasis_Were_Degraded_Buddhist_Nuns.htm
13. ^ http://www.hinduonnet.com/folio/fo9812/98120060.htm
14. ^ http://www.hinduonnet.com/folio/fo9812/98120060.htm
15. ^ Mahari of Orissa
16. ^ ">Mahari System of Orissa
17. ^ Yellamma Cult
18. ^ Yellamma Slaves
19. ^ Deccan Herald article about Yellamma Cult

Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 169th day of the year (170th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 31st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 31st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 30th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) is the current year, a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and the AD/CE era in the 21st century. ... is the 31st day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

Further reading

• Altekar, A.S., The Position of Women in Hindu Civilization, Benaras: Motilal Banarasi Das, 1956.
• Amrit Srinivasan, “Reform and Revival: The Devadasi and Her Dance�?, Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. XX, No. 44, November 2, 1985, pp. 1869-1876.
• Artal R.O., “Basavis in Peninsular India�?, Journal of Anthropological Society of Bombay, Vol. IX, No. 2, 1910.
• Asha Ramesh, Impact of Legislative Prohibition of the Devadasi Practice in Karnataka: A Study, (Carried out under financial assistance from NORAD), May 1993.
• Banerjee, G.R., Sex Delinquent Women and Their Rehabilitation, Bombay: Tata Institute of Social Sciences, 1953.
• Basham, A.L., The Wonder That Was India, New York: Grove Press, 1954.
• Chakrabothy, K. (2000). Women as Devadasis: Origin and Growth of the Devadasi Profession. Delhi, Deep & Deep Publications.
• Chakrapani, C, “Jogin System: A Study in Religion and Society�?, Man in Asia, Vol. IV, No. II, 1991.
• Crooke Williams, The Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India, (Third Reprint), Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1968.
• Crooke, W., “Prostitution�?, Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, Vol. X, Eds., James Hastings and Clark Edinburg, Second Impression, 1930.
• Desai Neera, Women in India, Bombay: Vora Publishers, 1957.
• Dubois Abbe J.A and Beachampes H.K., Hindu Manners, Customs and Ceremonies, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1928
• Dumont Louis, Religion, Politics and History in India, The Hague, Mouton and Co., 1970
• Dumont Louis, Homo Hierarchius: The Caste System and Its Implications, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1972.
• Durrani, K.S., Religion and Society, New Delhi: Uppal, 1983.
• Fuller Marcus B., The Wrongs of Indian Womanhood, Edinburgh: Oliphant Anderson and Ferrier, 1900.
• Gough Kathleen, “Female Initiation Rites on the Malabar Coast�?, Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, No. 85, 1952.
• Gupta Giri Raj, Religion in Modern India, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1983.
• Heggade Odeyar D., “A Socio-economic strategy for Rehabilitating Devadasis�?, Social Welfare, Feb-Mar 1983.
• Iyer, L.A.K, “Devadasis in South India: Their Traditional Origin And Development�?, Man in India, Vol.7, No. 47, 1927.
• Jain Devki, Women’s Quest for Power, New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1980.
• Jogan Shankar, Devadasi Cult – A Sociological Analysis (Second Revised Edition), New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1994.
• JOINT WOMEN’S PROGRAMME, Regional Centre, Bangalore, An Exploratory Study on Devadasi Rehabilitation Programme Initiated by Karnataka State Women’s Development Corporation and SC/ST Corporation, Government of Karnataka in Northern Districts of Karnataka, Report Submitted to National Commission for Women, New Delhi, 2001-02 (year not mentioned in the report).
• JONAKI (The Glow Worm), Devadasi System: Prostitution with Religious Sanction, Indrani Sinha (Chief Editor), Calcutta, Vol.2 No.1 1998.
• Jordens, J.T.F., “Hindu Religions and Social Reform in British India�?, A Cultural History of India, Ed. A.L. Basham, Clarendon Press,
• Jordan, K. (2003). From Sacred Servant to Profane Prostitute; A history of the changing legal status of the Devadasis in India 1857-1947. Delhi, Manohar. Oxford, 1975.
• Kadetotad, N.K., Religion and Society among the Harijans of Yellammana Jogatiyaru Hagu Devadasi Paddati (Jogati of Yellamma and Devadasi Custom), Dharwad, Karnatak University Press (Kannada), 1983.
• Kala Rani, Role Conflict in Working Women, New Delhi: Chetna Publishers, 1976.
• Karkhanis, G.G., Devadasi: A Burning Problem of Karnataka, Bijapur: Radha Printing Works, 1959.
• Levine, P. (2000). "Orientalist Sociology and the Creation of Colonial Sexualities." Feminist Review 65(17): Pages: 5 - 21.
• Marglin, F.A., Wives of The God-king: Rituals of Devadasi of Puri, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1985.
• Mies, M. (1980). Indian Women and Patriarchy. Delhi, Concept Publishers.
• Mies, M. (1986). Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labor. London, Zed Books Ltd.
• Mukherjee, A.B., "Female Participation in India: Patterns & Associations", Tiydschrift: Voor Econ, Geografie, 1972.
• Ostor Akos, Culture and Power, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1971.
• Patil, B.R., “The Devadasis�?, in The Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol. XXXV, No. 4, January 1975, pp. 377-89
• Puekar S.D. and Kamalla Rao, A Study of Prostitution in Bombay, Bombay: Lalwani Publishing House, 1967.
• Rajaladshmi, Suryanarayana and Mukherjee, “The Basavis in Chittoor District of Andhra Pradesh�?, Man in India, Vol. 56, No. 4, 1976.
• Ranjana, “Daughters Married to Gods and Goddesses�?, Social Welfare, Feb-Mar 1983, pp. 28-31.
• Sahoo, B.B, “Revival of the Devadasi system�?, Indian Journal of Social Work, Vol 58, No 3, 1997.
• Srinivasan, K., Devadasi (a novel), Madras: Christian Literature Society, 1976.
• Sujana Mallika & Krishna Reddy, Devadasi System – A Universal Institution, Paper presented in the A.P. History Congress at Warangal, January 1990.
• Tarachand K.C., Devadasi Custom – Rural Social Structure and Flesh Markets, New Delhi: Reliance Publishing House, 1992.
• Upadhyaya, B.S., Women in Rig Veda, New Delhi: S. Chand & Co., 1974.
• Vasant Rajas, Devadasi: Shodh Ani Bodh (Marathi), Pune: Sugawa Prakashan, July 1997.
• Vijaya Kumar, S & Chakrapani, c 1993, Joginism: A Bane of Indian Women, Almora: Shri Almora Book Depot.

See also

• Nagarvadhu

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External links

• Devadasis - Sinned or Sinned Against? by Anil Chawla.
• Slaves to the goddess of fertility by Damian Grammaticas - BBC News, 8 June 2007