The Dhofar Rebellion was an insurrection in the province of Dhofar against the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman from 1962 to 1975. It ended with the defeat of the rebels, but the state of Oman had to be radically reformed and modernised to cope with the campaign. 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar). ... 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Motto: none Anthem: Nashid as-Salaam as-Sultani Capital Muscat Largest city Muscat Official language(s) Arabic Government Absolute monarchy  - Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said {{{sovereignty_type}}} {{{established_events}}} {{{established_dates}}} Area    - Total 309,500 km² (70th)   119,498 sq mi   - Water (%) negligible Population    - July 2005 est. ... The Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (in Arabic: الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير عُمان - al-Jabhah al-Shaabiyah li-TahrÄ«r Uman) a Marxist and Arab nationalist revolutionary organisation in the Sultanate of Oman. ... The crossed Khanjar motif of the state coat of arms is a common motif in flags and badges of the SAF The Sultan of Omans Armed Forces (SAF) are the Royal Army of Oman, Navy, Air Force and other defence forces of the Sultanate of Oman. ... Insurrection could refer to: * in a general sense, it means Rebellion * it is also a title of a Star Trek film, see Star Trek: Insurrection ... The Dhofar (Arabic ظفار Ẓufār) region lies in Oman, east of Yemen. ... Motto: none Anthem: Nashid as-Salaam as-Sultani Capital Muscat Largest city Muscat Official language(s) Arabic Government Absolute monarchy  - Sultan Qaboos bin Said Al Said {{{sovereignty_type}}} {{{established_events}}} {{{established_dates}}} Area    - Total 309,500 km² (70th)   119,498 sq mi   - Water (%) negligible Population    - July 2005 est. ... 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar). ... 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday. ...

Background

In 1962, Oman was a comparatively backward country in the Middle East. Under Sultan Said bin Taimur, almost all aspects of twentieth-century development were outlawed. The population of Dhofar, who are linguistically different from the majority population of Oman, were even further discriminated against. 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar). ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... Said Bin Taimur (1910-1972) was the sultan of Muscat and Oman (the country later renamed to Oman) from 1932 to 1970. ...

The province of Dhofar consists of a narrow, fertile coastal plain, on which stands Salalah, the provincial capital. Behind this are the rugged hills of the Jebel Dhofar. From June to September each year, the jebel receives moisture-laden winds (the Khareef or monsoon) and is shrouded in cloud. As a result, it is heavily vegetated, and for much of the year is green and lush. To the north, the hills slope down via rough wadis and cliffs into the gravel plains and sand seas of the Empty Quarter. Salalah from space, November 2004 Classification City Sultan Qaboos bin Said al Said Area ?,???km² [1] Population  - Total (2005)  - Density  - Oman calculated rank 178,447[2] ???.??/km² 2nd Timezone: (UTC) +4 Latitude Longitude 17. ... Colloquial Arabic term used in southern Oman for the south east monsoon that affects the Dhofar province (August - October) ... Location of the empty quarter in Arabia Sand dunes in the Empty Quarter The Empty Quarter (Arabic: Rub al Khali الربع الخالي), is one of the largest sand deserts in the world, encompassing the southern third of the Arabian Peninsula, including southern Saudi Arabia, and areas of Oman, the United Arab Emirates...

Early years of the rebellion

In 1962, a dissatisfied tribal leader, Mussalim bin Nafl, formed the Dhofar Liberation Front (DLF) and obtained arms and vehicles from Saudi Arabia (Saudi Arabia and Oman had earlier clashed over ownership of the Buraimi Oasis, and the Saudis had already supported two failed insurrections in the Jebel Akhdar.) Additionally, the exiled Imam of Oman, who led a failed revolt against the Sultan in 1957-59, also supported the DLF. Bin Nafl and his men made an epic crossing of the Empty Quarter to reach Dhofar. As early as December 1962, Bin Nafl's guerilla band performed sabotage operations on the British air base at Salalah and ambushed oil industry vehicles; however, they then withdrew, having been sent by Saudi Arabia to Iraq for more guerrilla training. 1962 (MCMLXII) was a common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar). ... Buraimi is an oasis town in northeastern Oman, on the border with the United Arab Emirates. ... For the Jebel Akhdar region of Libya, see Jebel Akhdar (Libya) The Jebel Akhdar or Djebel Akhdar (Arabic for Green Mountains) is a mountainous region in Oman, rising to a height of 3075 meters. ...

From 1964, the DLF then began a campaign of hit-and-run attacks on oil company installations and government posts. Many of the DLF were trained former soldiers of the Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces (SAF), or of the Trucial Oman Scouts in the United Arab Emirates. 1964 (MCMLXIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1964 calendar). ... The crossed Khanjar motif of the state coat of arms is a common motif in flags and badges of the SAF The Sultan of Omans Armed Forces (SAF) are the Royal Army of Oman, Navy, Air Force and other defence forces of the Sultanate of Oman. ...

From the early days of the rebellion, Nasserite and other left wing movements in Yemen and Aden were also involved. In 1967, two events combined to give the Rebellion a more revolutionary complexion. One was the Six Day War which radicalised opinion throughout the Arab world. The other was the British withdrawal from Aden and the establishment of the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY). From this point, the rebels had a source of arms, supplies and training facilities adjacent to Dhofar, and fresh recruits from among well-indoctrinated groups in the PDRY. However, this also led to a split between those such as bin Nafl who were fighting for local autonomy and recognition, and the more doctrinaire revolutionaries (led by Mohammad Ahmad al-Ghassani) who renamed the rebel movement the Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arabian Gulf (PFLOAG). One of bin Nafl's lieutenants, Said bin Gheer, was an early and influential defector to the Sultan. Nasserism is an Arab political ideology based on the thinking of the Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser. ... Port of Aden (around 1910). ... 1967 (MCMLXVII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar (the link is to a full 1967 calendar). ... The 1967 Arab-Israeli War, also known as the Six-Day War or June War, was fought between Israel and its Arab neighbors Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. ... Port of Aden (around 1910). ... National motto: none Official language Arabic Capital Aden Area 287,680 km² Population  - Total (1973)  - Density 1,590,275 5. ...

By 1969, the DLF and PFLOAG fighters (known widely as Adoo) had overrun much of the Jebel Dhofar, and cut the only road across it, that from Salalah to "Midway" (Thumrait) in the deserts to the north. The units of the Sultan's Armed Forces were understrength, badly equipped and generally not properly trained to face hardy guerillas on their own ground. Small detachments of the British RAF Regiment and Royal Artillery had to be deployed to protect the vital airfield at Salalah from infiltrators and harassing mortar and rocket fire. 1969 (MCMLXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (the link is to a full 1969 calendar). ... The Royal Air Force Regiment (RAF Regt) is a specialist corps within the Royal Air Force, responsible for capturing and defending airfields and associated installations. ... RGA redirects here. ...

Other insurgents in the north of Oman formed another organisation, the National Democratic Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arabian Gulf (NDFLOAG). In June 1970 they attacked two SAF posts at Nizwa and Izki. They were repulsed but the incident convinced many (including the Sultan's British advisers and backers) that new leadership was required if Oman was not to collapse into disorder. 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1970 calendar). ... Nizwa (نزوى in Arabic) was the capital city of Oman proper. ... Izki (Arabic: ‎) is a town in the region Ad Dakhiliyah, in northeastern Oman. ...

Coup

On July 23, 1970 Said bin Taimur was deposed. (The coup was almost bloodless. Folklore has it that one of the plotters, two of the Sultan's bodyguard and the Sultan were slightly wounded, all by the Sultan himself). He was replaced by his son, Qaboos bin Said, who immediately instigated major social, educational and military reforms. July 23 is the 204th day (205th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 161 days remaining. ... 1970 (MCMLXX) was a common year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1970 calendar). ... Sayyed Qaboos bin Sa’id Al ‘Bu Sa’id (Arabic: قابوس بن سعيد ال بو سعيد born November 18, 1940 in Salalah) is the current Sultan of Oman. ...

One step which had a major impact on the uprising was the announcement of an amnesty for surrendered fighters, and aid in defending their communities from rebels. The surrendered rebels formed Firqat irregular units, trained by teams from the British Special Air Service Regiment. Eighteen Firqat units, numbering about 100 each, were eventually formed. These played a major part in denying local support to the rebels. SAS Cap Badge Official force name Special Air Service Nicknames The Regiment The SAS (British Army phonetic) the sass (discouraged by the unit itself) Motto Who Dares Wins Description Britains main Special Operations Force. ...

The first serious step in re-establishing the Sultan's authority on the Jebel Dhofar took place in October 1971, when Operation Jaguar which involved five Firqat units and a Squadron of the SAS was mounted. After hard fighting, the SAS and Firqats secured an enclave on the Eastern Jebel Samhan from which they could expand. In a major hearts and minds operation, recaptured areas of the Jebel received aid in the form of clinics, schools, roads and newly dug wells. 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1971 calendar). ... Hearts and Minds refers to two separate Vietnam War related subjects. ...

Meanwhile, the regular units of the SAF were expanded and re-equipped. (Officers and NCO instructors from the British Army and Royal Marines were attached to all units.) They began to establish lines running north from the coast and up to the summit of the Jebel Dhofar, to interdict the movement of rebels and the camel trains carrying their supplies. The Shah of Iran sent a brigade of troops to assist in this task. The lines were really effective only in the dry season, when air support was available from BAC Strikemaster and Hawker Hunter aircraft of the Sultan's Air Force. The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces. ... His/Her Majestys Royal Marines, also known as the Royal Marines (RM), are the Royal Navys Light Infantry, the United Kingdoms amphibious force and specialists in Arctic and Mountain Warfare. ... Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran (Persian: محمد رضا پهلوی , ،شاه ایران) (October 26, 1919, Tehran – July 27, 1980, Cairo), styled His Imperial Majesty, and holding the monarchial titles of Shāhanshāh (King of Kings) and Aryamehr (Light of the Aryans), was the ruler of Iran from September 16, 1941 until the Iranian Revolution... The BAC 167 Strikemaster was a jet-powered training and light attack aircraft. ... Sixteen Hunters of the RAF Black Arrows perform aerobatics at the Farnborough Air Show, England. ...

The defeat of the rebellion

Nevertheless, the rebels were being deprived of support and supplies. To retrieve the situation, they mounted major attacks on the coastal towns of Mirbat and Taqa. At Mirbat, 250 Adoo faced 100 assorted Firqat, paramilitary Gendarmerie and a detachment of the Special Air Service. In spite of the low Khareef cloud cover, air support was available and helicopters landed SAS reinforcements. The Adoo were repulsed with heavy losses. Taqah (Arabic: ‎) is a coastal town in the Dhofar governorate, in southwestern Oman. ... The Battle of Mirbat took place during the 1970s attempted coup in Oman. ...

From this point on, the rebel defeat was inevitable, although they thwarted an offensive by the SAF in 1973 intended to seal the border with the PDRY and capture the main Adoo base in the Shershitti Caves. The SAF gained one success when they made a helicopter landing to capture one position codenamed Simba at Sarfait near the border. This post was held for two years, and overlooked the rebels' supply lines along the coastal plain although it did not block them. The Adoo earned the respect of their opponents for their resilience and skill. 1973 (MCMLXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday. ...

In January 1974, after several splits and defections, the rebel movement renamed itself the Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (PFLO). This contraction of their aims coincided with a reduction in the support they received from Russia and China. Meanwhile, the Adoo were steadily driven by the Firqats into the western part of the Jebel Al-Qamar. 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... The Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (in Arabic: الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير عُمان - al-Jabhah al-Shaabiyah li-Tahrīr Uman) a Marxist and Arab nationalist revolutionary organisation in the Sultanate of Oman. ...

In July 1975, the SAF launched a second "final" offensive. An attack from Simba, intended to be a diversion, nevertheless succeeded in reaching the coast and thus finally cutting off the Adoo from their bases in the PDRY. Over the next few months, the remaining fighters surrendered or sought sanctuary in the PDRY. 1975 (MCMLXXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday. ...

The Rebellion was finally declared to be defeated in January 1976. 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday. ...

See also

• Iran-Arab relations

Iran has always had very mixed relations with the Arab world. ...

External links

• GlobalSecurity.org
• British contribution

Sources

• We won a war, by John Akehurst, M. Russell, 1982, ISBN 0-85955-091-5
• SAS Operation Oman, by Tony Jeapes, William Kimber, London, 1980 ISBN 0-7183-0018-1
• Armed Forces & Modern Counter-insurgency, edited by Ian Beckett and John Pimlott, St. Martin's, New York, 1985, ISBN 0-312-00449-4