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In linguistics, diglossia is a situation where, in a given society, there are two (often closely-related) languages, one of high prestige, which is generally used by the government and in formal texts, and one of low prestige, which is usually the spoken vernacular tongue. The high-prestige language tends to be the more formalised, and its forms and vocabulary often 'filter down' into the vernacular, though often in a changed form. As an aspect of study of the relationships between codes and social structure, diglossia is an important concept in the field of sociolinguistics. Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Wiktionary (a portmanteau of wiki and dictionary) is a multilingual, Web-based project to create a free content dictionary, available in over 150 languages. ... Linguistics is the scientific study of language, which can be theoretical or applied. ... A prestige dialect is the dialect spoken by the most prestigious people in a speech community large enough to sustain multiple dialects. ... Look up Vernacular in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article or section cites its sources but does not provide page references. ...

Etymology

The French term diglossie was first coined (as a translation of Greek διγλωσσία, 'bilingualism') by the Greek linguist and demoticist Ioannis Psycharis. The Arabist William Marçais used the term in 1930 to describe the linguistic situation in Arabic-speaking countries. Main article: Greek language Modern Greek (Νέα Ελληνικά or Νεοελληνική, lit. ... Ioannis (or Yannis) Psycharis (Greek Ιωάννης (Γιάννης) Ψυχάρης, French Jean Psychari, 1854-1929) was a philologist, author and promoter of Demotic Greek. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Year 1930 (MCMXXX) was a common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar) of the Gregorian calendar. ... Arabic ( or just ) is the largest living member of the Semitic language family in terms of speakers. ...

Language registers and types of diglossia

In Charles A. Ferguson's article "Diglossia" in the journal Word (1959), diglossia was described as a kind of bilingualism in a given society in which one of the languages is (H), i.e. has high prestige, and another of the languages is (L), i.e. has low prestige. In Ferguson's definition, (H) and (L) are always closely related. Fishman also talks about diglossia with unrelated languages: "extended diglossia" (Fishman 1967), for example Sanskrit as (H) and Kannada as (L) or Alsatian (Elsässisch) in Alsace as (L) and French as (H). Kloss calls the (H) variant exoglossia and the (L) variant endoglossia. Charles A. Ferguson (1921-1998) was a Stanford University linguist best known for his work on diglossia. ... 1959 (MCMLIX) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The term bilingualism (from bi meaning two and lingua meaning language) can refer to rather different phenomena. ... The Sanskrit language ( , for short ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, and one of the 23 official languages of India. ... Kannada - aptly described as sirigannada (known to few as Kanarese) is one of the oldest Dravidian languages and is spoken in its various dialects by roughly 45 million people. ... This inscription in Alsatian on a window in Eguisheim, Alsace, reads: Dis Hausz sted in Godes Hand - God bewar es vor Feyru (This house stands in Gods hand - God beware it for fire) Alsatian (French Alsacien, German Elsässisch) is a Low Alemannic German dialect spoken in Alsace, a... (New région flag) (Region logo) Location Administration Capital Regional President Departments Bas-Rhin Haut-Rhin Arrondissements 13 Cantons 75 Communes 903 Statistics Land area1 8,280 km² Population (Ranked 14th)  - January 1, 2006 est. ...

In some cases (especially with creole languages), the nature of the connection between (H) and (L) is not one of diglossia but a continuum; for example, Jamaican Creole as (L) and Standard English as (H) in Jamaica. A creole is a language descended from a pidgin that has become the native language of a group of people. ... A phase that happens to native languages in a peripheral, especially colonial society that emerge from the previous dominance of a high language imposed by the center. ... Jamaican Creole, also known locally as Patois/(Patwa) or simply Jamaican, is an English/African-based language --not to be confused with Jamaican English nor with the Rastafarian use of English-- used primarily on the island of Jamaica. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

(H) is usually the written language whereas (L) is the spoken language. In formal situations, (H) is used; in informal situations, (L) is used. One of the earliest known examples is Latin, having diglossia Classical Latin (H) and Vulgar Latin (L). The latter is the tongue from which the Romance languages descended, and is almost completely unattested in text. Classical Latin is the language used by the principal exponents of that language in what is usually regarded as classical Latin literature. ... Vulgar Latin, as in this political graffito at Pompeii, was the speech of ordinary people of the Roman Empire — different from the classical Latin used by the Roman elite. ... The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family, comprising all the languages that descend from Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. ...

The (L) variants are not just simplifications or "corruptions" of the (H) variants. Many (L) languages have certain features that are more complex than the corresponding (H) languages: some Swiss German dialects have /e/, /ɛ/ and /æ/ while Standard German only has /ɛ/ and /e(:)/. Jamaican Creole has fewer vowel phonemes than standard Englishes, but it has additional palatal /kʲ/ and /ɡʲ/ phonemes.

Especially in endoglossia the (L) form may also be called "basilect", the (H) form "acrolect", and an intermediate form "mesolect". Note however that there is no "mesolect" in German-speaking Switzerland and in Luxembourg. Whether Paraguay has a form of diglossia is controversial. Guaraní and Spanish are both official languages of Paraguay. Some scholars argue that there are Paraguayans who actually don't speak Guaraní. The Chinese language also offers an interesting case. In linguistics, a basilect is a dialect of speech that has diverged so far from the standard language that in essence it has become a different language. ... An acrolect is a register of a spoken language that is considered formal and high-style. ... A mesolect is a register of spoken language whose character falls somewhere between the prestige of the acrolect and the informality of the basilect. ... Guaraní (local name: avañeẽ ) is an Amerindian language of South America that belongs to the Tupí-Guaraní subfamily. ... Chinese (written) language (pinyin: zhōngw n) written in Chinese characters The Chinese language (汉语/漢語, 华语/華語, or 中文; Pinyin: H nyǔ, Hu yǔ, or Zhōngw n) is a member of the Sino-Tibetan family of languages. ...

Ferguson's classic examples include Standard German/Swiss German, Standard Arabic/vernacular Arabic, Standard French/Kréyòl in Haiti, Katharevousa/Dhimotiki in Greece, and Bokmål/Nynorsk in Norway. However, Kréyòl is now recognised as a standard language in Haiti. Swiss German dialects are hardly languages with low prestige in Switzerland; and colloquial Arabic has more prestige in some respects than standard Arabic nowadays (see Chambers, Sociolinguistic Theory). And after the end of the military regime in 1974, Dhimotiki was made into Greece's only standard language (1976). Nowadays, Katharevousa is (with few exceptions, e. g. by the Greek Orthodox Church) no longer used. Harold Schiffman writes about Swiss German: "it seems to be the case that Swiss German was once consensually agreed to be in a diglossic hierarchy with Standard German, but that this consensus is now breaking." There is also a lot of code-switching especially in the Arabic world; according to Andrew Freeman this is "different from Ferguson's description of diglossia which states that the two forms are in complementary distribution." To a certain extent, there is code switching and overlap in all diglossic societies, even German-speaking Switzerland. Furthermore, in Ferguson's definition, diglossia is not bilingualism; however this depends on the scholar's definition of language. For example, different kinds of Arabic are not mutually intelligible; even though many are, but this may also be due to exposure to different varieties rather than inherent linguistic properties. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Arabic ( or just ) is the largest living member of the Semitic language family in terms of speakers. ... The Arabic language is classified as a Semitic language. ... Haitian Creole (Kreyòl ayisyen) is a creole language based on the French language. ... Katharevousa (Greek Καθαρεύουσα, IPA: ) is a form of the Greek language, created during the early 19th century by Adamantios Korais (1748-1833). ... Main article: Greek language Modern Greek (Νέα Ελληνικά or Νεοελληνική, lit. ... BokmÃ¥l (lit. ... Nynorsk (literally New Norwegian) is one of the two officially sanctioned orthographic standards of the Norwegian language, the other being BokmÃ¥l. ... The Phoenix rising from its flames and the silhouette of the soldier bearing a rifle with fixed bayonet was the emblem of the Junta. ... 1974 (MCMLXXIV) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... Year 1976 (MCMLXXVI) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar) of the 1976 Gregorian calendar. ... Code-switching is a term in linguistics referring to alternation between one or more languages, dialects, or language registers in the course of discourse between people who have more than one language in common. ... A pair of languages is said to be mutually intelligible if speakers of one language can readily understand the other language. ...

Examples where the High/Low dichotomy is justified in terms of social prestige include Italian dialects as (L) and Standard Italian as (H) in Italy and German dialects and standard German in Germany. In Italy and Germany, those speakers who still speak dialects typically use dialect in informal situations, especially in the family. In German-speaking Switzerland, on the other hand, Swiss German dialects are to a certain extent even used in schools and to a larger extent in churches. Ramseier calls German-speaking Switzerland's diglossia a "medial diglossia", whereas Felicity Rash prefers "functional diglossia". Paradoxically, Swiss German offers both the best example for diglossia (all speakers are native speakers of Swiss German and thus diglossic) and the worst, because there is no clear-cut hierarchy.

English during the Norman invasion

Historically, England had diglossia between a French-speaking ruling class and Germanic-speaking commoners. English was created through the merger of this divide. However, there is still evidence of a division, between "academic" words and "common" words. Many "power" words (such as bailiff) are "academic". The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ...

Where English has had doublets, one Germanic and one Romance, either a semantic shift has taken place (as in pyre and fire), or one word has disappeared from everyday vocabulary. A doublet is one of two or more words in a language that share a common root word, but may have traveled into a language through different routes. ... Semantic drift, in historical linguistics, is a phenomenon whereby words change in meaning over a period of time, resulting in semantic differences between cognates. ...

Chinese

Classical Chinese

For over two thousand years, the Chinese used Classical Chinese (Literary Chinese) as a formal standard written language. The standard written language served as a bridge for communication throughout China (and other countries in the CJKV area) for millenia. Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of written Chinese based on the grammar and vocabulary of very old forms of Chinese , making it very different from any modern spoken form of Chinese. ... CJK can also stand for Centre Jeunes Kamenge. ...

However, the colloquial spoken Chinese varieties continued to evolve. The gulf became so wide between the formal written and colloquial spoken languages that it was blamed for hindering education and literacy, and some even went so far as to blame it in part for the political turmoil that occurred in China during the 19th and early 20th centuries. This eventually culminated into the adoption of Vernacular Chinese, which was based on modern spoken Mandarin, for all formal communication. Spoken Chinese Spoken Chinese comprises many regional variants. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999... Vernacular Chinese (pinyin: báihuà; Wade-Giles: paihua) is a style or register of the written Chinese language essentially modeled after the spoken language and associated with Standard Mandarin. ... Standard Mandarin – also known as Standard Chinese or Standard spoken Chinese – is the official Chinese spoken language used by the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), and Singapore. ...

Modern Chinese

After the adoption of Vernacular Chinese as the modern standard written language in the early 20th century, diglossia was no longer a big issue among the majority of Chinese speakers who natively speak Mandarin Chinese. However, Vernacular Chinese and its pronunciation in local dialects still is an acrolect in regions where Mandarin is not spoken natively, such as most of South China. This article or section uses Ruby annotation. ... Mozilla was the official, public, original name of Mozilla Application Suite by the Mozilla Foundation, nowadays called SeaMonkey suite. ... Standard Mandarin – also known as Standard Chinese or Standard spoken Chinese – is the official Chinese spoken language used by the Peoples Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), and Singapore. ... An acrolect is a register of a spoken language that is considered formal and high-style. ... North China (北方 Hanyu pinyin: Běifāng) and South China (南方 Hanyu pinyin: Nánfāng) are two approximate regions within China. ...

For instance in Hong Kong, Standard Cantonese is the primary language of spoken communication, although all formal written communication is done in Vernacular Chinese. Unique among the other Chinese dialects, Cantonese has its own written form, but it is only used in informal contexts and is often inconsistent due to the absence of standardization. Standard Cantonese is a variant, and is generally considered the prestige dialect of Cantonese Chinese. ... Written Cantonese refers to the written language used to write colloquial standard Cantonese using Chinese characters. ...

All Chinese speakers will read and write in the Mandarin-based standard written language. However due to standard Chinese's quasi-phonetic writing system, Cantonese speakers who do not speak Mandarin will read aloud the characters in Cantonese pronunciation only. The resulting speech is Mandarin-based grammar and vocabulary pronounced word-by-word in Cantonese. If the same sentence were to be spoken using regular colloquial Cantonese, it might be quite different. Here is an example (note the switching of the direct and indirect objects and the use of different vocabulary for certain words in the standard and colloquial renditions):

Note: Mandarin romanized using Hanyu Pinyin. Cantonese romanized using Yale.

Note that many characters used in the written renditions of Cantonese are used strictly for their pronunciations and do not have any relation to the character's original definition. Some of these characters were modified from proper Chinese characters and do not have definitions outside of Cantonese context. Cantonese pronunciation of standard written Chinese is generally understandable to Cantonese speakers educated in the standard written language. It is most often used in Cantonese newscasts, albeit with certain substitutions of colloquial Cantonese vocabulary so as to make it not sound as stilted. This form of spoken Cantonese is a higher register and can be considered the acrolect to the colloquial Cantonese basilect. Hanyu Pinyin (Simplified Chinese: ; Traditional Chinese: ; pinyin: ), commonly called Pinyin, is the most common variant of Standard Mandarin romanization system in use. ... The Yale romanizations are four systems created during World War II for use by United States military personnel. ... In linguistics, a register is a subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting. ...

This situation was also the case when Classical Chinese was the standard written language, but since the modern adoption of Vernacular Chinese, the situation no longer applies to native Mandarin speakers.

Catalan

With the possible exception of Andorra, where there is strong pressure from Castilian ("Español", referred to as Castellano by The Constitution of 1978) and French, Catalan is in a situation of diglossia in most of the Catalan-speaking territories. This is not only because other languages (Castilian, French, Italian) are used, to a large extent, by the corresponding official organizations. Immigration has also, in the case of speakers of the Castilian language, been so strong in the 20th century that one could speak of external diglossia, produced by the relative increase of Castilian speakers. Historically, successive Spanish and French governments did not provide education in Catalan during many years, but only in their respective official languages. In Alghero, the Catalan language is in severe danger of disappearing from use, as has been recognized by UNESCO. It could be said that historically the Catalan language was in this danger everywhere, due to the pressure of the official languages of the different states. However, currently, it is considered by far the most successfully re-introduced minority language within Europe. Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... This article is about the international language known as Spanish. ... This article is about the international language known as Spanish or Castilian. ... The Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy. ... Year 1978 (MCMLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1978 Gregorian calendar). ... Catalan IPA: (català IPA: or []) is a Romance language, the national language of Andorra, and a co-official language in the Spanish autonomous communities of Balearic Islands, Catalonia and Valencia (in the latter with the name of Valencian), and in the city of LAlguer in the Italian island of... Alghero (LAlguer in Catalan and SAlighèra in Sardinian), is a town of about 35,000 inhabitants (down from 54,300 inhabitants since early 20th century) in Italy. ... UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established in 1945. ...

Filipino and Tagalog

The Manila dialect is the basis of Filipino, which is a national and an official language. Many Tagalogs from the provinces speak their own dialect of Tagalog. When these people go to Manila, they will eventually learn to use the Manila dialect and speak only their native dialect when they go back to their provinces or when people from the same province gather together. At the moment, very little is written using any other dialect of Tagalog other than that of Manila. Also, having a regional accent is view to be not beneficial in the Philippines. And although there are some who would maintain their accents, their use is very minimal outside the provinces.

Finnish

The Finnish language has a standard literary variant, literary Finnish, and a spoken variant, spoken Finnish. Both are considered a form of non-dialectal standard language, and are used throughout the country. Literary Finnish is a consciously created fusion of dialects for use as a literary language, which is rarely spoken at all, being confined to writing and official speeches. Its use in colloquial discourse is considered overly prestigious or even pretentious. Spoken Finnish is similar to dialects spoken in Häme and Uusimaa, and ignoring a few local idiosyncrasies, virtually identical to the local spoken language in the suburbs of the capital area, Greater Helsinki. Today, it is estimated that because of nationalism and the massive internal population movement following industrialization, actual Finnish dialects have died out and left behind only a few local variations to the common spoken Finnish. Finnish ( ) is the language spoken by the majority of the population in Finland (92%[1]) and by ethnic Finns outside Finland. ... This article deals with features of the spoken Finnish language, specifically how it is spoken in Greater Helsinki capital region and the cities in the Central Finnish dialectal area, such as Jyväskylä, Lahti, Hyvinkää, and Hämeenlinna. ... Idiosyncrasy comes from Greek ιδιοσυγκρασία a peculiar temperament, habit of body (idios ones own and sun-krasis mixture). It is defined as a structural or behavioral characteristic peculiar to an individual or group. ... Map of the Metropolitan Area (Light Green) and the Capital Region (Dark Green). ...

Malta

Malta is officially a bi-lingual country: both Maltese and English are official languages. Maltese is, uniquely for Europe, a Semitic dialect left over from Arab domination of the islands which ended some 900 years ago and English as Malta was a colony until 1964.

Maltese society has been traditionally quite strongly divided, politically, between the working class and middle and upper classes and this is reflected in their language use. Although all Maltese can speak their native language, the extent to which one uses and is able to speak English often reflects one's background. This is most clearly illustrated by the different newspapers in Malta: the liberal/conservative ones are in English (with names like the Times of Malta and Malta Independent) and the more left-leaning ones are in Maltese. Maltese people of a middle- and upper-class background will often speak English or use code-switching extensively in public. There have been warnings from several quarters including a linguistics professor from the university of Malta that the Maltese language could become endangered if the government (currently the right of centre Nationalists) does not do more to promote it. Code-switching is a term in linguistics referring to alternation between one or more languages, dialects, or language registers in the course of discourse between people who have more than one language in common. ...

Portuguese

Further information: Brazilian Portuguese

According to some contemporary Brazilian linguists (Bortoni, Kato, Mattos e Silva, Perini and most recently, with great impact, Bagno), Brazilian Portuguese may be a highly diglossic language. This theory claims that there is an L-variant (termed "Brazilian Vernacular"), which would be the mother tongue of all Brazilians, and an H-variant (standard Brazilian Portuguese) acquired through schooling. L-variant represents a simplified form of the language (in terms of grammar, but not of phonetics) that could have evolved from 16th century Portuguese, influenced by Amerindian (mostly Tupi) and African languages, while H-variant would be based on 19th century European Portuguese (and very similar to Standard European Portuguese, with only minor differences in spelling and grammar usage). Mário A. Perini, a Brazilian linguist, even compares the depth of the differences between L- and H- variants of Brazilian Portuguese with those between Standard Spanish and Standard Portuguese. However, his proposal is still not widely accepted by either grammarians or academics. Brazilian Portuguese is a collective name for the varieties of Portuguese written and spoken by virtually all the 187 million inhabitants of Brazil and by a couple million Brazilian immigrants and temporary workers in other countries, mainly in Canada, United States, Portugal, Paraguay and Japan. ... Brazilian Portuguese is a collective name for the varieties of Portuguese written and spoken by virtually all the 187 million inhabitants of Brazil and by a couple million Brazilian immigrants and temporary workers in other countries, mainly in Canada, United States, Portugal, Paraguay and Japan. ... (15th century - 16th century - 17th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 16th century was that century which lasted from 1501 to 1600. ... Native Americans (also Indians, Aboriginal Peoples, American Indians, First Nations, Alaskan Natives, or Indigenous Peoples of America) are the indigenous inhabitants of The Americas prior to the European colonization, and their modern descendants. ... Tupi Antigo (or Tupinamba) is a extinct language which was spoken by Indian tribesmen in the coast of Brazil. ... Map showing the distribution of African language families and some major African languages. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... The orthography of a language specifies the correct way of writing in that language. ...

Tamil

Tamil is a diglossic language. The classic form (sentamil) of the language is different from the colloquial (koduntamil) form. This difference in the language has existed since ancient times. Tamil ( ; IPA ) is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by Tamils in India and Sri Lanka, with smaller communities of speakers in many other countries. ... A colloquialism is an informal expression, that is, an expression not used in formal speech or writing. ...

The classic form is preferred for writing, and is also used for public speaking. While written Tamil is mostly standard across various Tamil speaking regions, spoken form of the language differs widely from the written form.

Novels, even popular ones, will use (H) for all description and narration and use (L) only for dialogue, if they use it at all. The (L) variant is often only used for dialogue of rural or less educated speakers. Even though all Tamils in ordinary conversation will use (L), novels often depict educated people speaking in an (H) form.

The Singapore Tamil population represents a case of irredentism, showing diglossia, where the Singaporean Tamils speak Tamil (L), but all their official communications have to be in English (H). However, Tamil is one of the four official languages of Singapore.

The (L) spoken form is highly modified and mixed up with the (H) English (and referred to as "Tinglish") used in the official documents and media, blurring the demarcation between L and H.

Regional and caste differences predominate in (L) variation. Tamil in the state capital Chennai (formerly Madras) is often quite distinct from that spoken elsewhere. Due to its proximity to Andhra Pradesh, there are often more Telugu words. Chennai (L) Tamil also often has more words of Urdu (or Deccani) than do varieties of Tamil from elsewhere in the state. Because of the larger role of English, Chennai Tamil also shows a great influence from this language. Of course, the Tamil spoken in Sri Lanka, while fully intelligible, also has clear differences in vocabulary and pronunciation. Throughout the state, a tripartite caste-based division is also common. Brahmins who have settled in Tamil Nadu speak Tamil (L) with modifications restricted to their caste. Similarly, Scheduled Castes (formerly called Untouchables) speak forms of (L) Tamil with clear grammatical differences from that of the members of other castes. However, besides caste difference, regional differences are more interesting to note. The Tamil spoken by people in Northern districts of Tamil Nadu like Arcot, Chennai and Southern districts like Chidambaram, Tirunelveli, Madurai are different in their accents and sounds of words.

Ukrainian/Russian Diglossia

Using the Matched-Guise Test, Laada Bilaniuk (University of Michigan) administered surveys to 2,000 participants in Ukraine. In her article "Diglossia in Flux: Language and Ethnicity in Ukraine", Bilaniuk reports that until now, Russian has been the H(igh) language and Ukrainian the L(ow) language. However, her data shows that diglossia in Ukraine is shifting. There are very few or no other articles that link to this one. ...

Now, both standard Russian and standard Ukrainian are considered the H(igh) languages, and the L(ow) category is filled with all non-standard dialects of the H(igh) languages.

Bibliography

• Eeden, Petrus van. "Diglossie" http://www.afrikaans.nu/pag7.htm
• Ferguson, Charles A. 1959. "Diglossia," Word 15: 325-340.
• Fishman, Joshua. 1967. “Bilingualism with and without diglossia; diglossia with and without bilingualism.” Journal of Social Issues 23: 29-38.
• Freeman, Andrew. "Andrew Freeman's Perspectives on Arabic Diglossia" http://www-personal.umich.edu/~andyf/digl_96.htm
• Lubliner, Jacob. "Reflections on Diglossia" http://www.ce.berkeley.edu/~coby/essays/refdigl.htm
• Ramsey, S. Robert (1987). The Languages of China. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01468-X. 
• Rash, Felicity. 1998. The German Language in Switzerland. Multilingualism, Diglossia and Variation. Bern: Peter Lang.
• Schiffman, Harold. "Diglossia as a Sociolinguistic Situation" http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~haroldfs/messeas/diglossia/node1.html

Charles A. Ferguson (1921-1998) was a Stanford University linguist best known for his work on diglossia. ... Professor Joshua Aaron Fishman is an American social scientist and linguist at Stanford University. ...

Ukrainian/Russian

• Diglossia in flux: language and ethnicity in Ukraine. Texas Linguistic Forum (1993) 33:79-88.

Yavorska Galyna M. Prescriptyvna lingvistyka yak dyskurs: Mova, kultura, vlada (Prescriptive linguistics as a discourse: Language. Clture. Power). Kyiv, VIPOL, 2000. - 288 p. Yavorska G. Do problemy naivnoyi linguistyky (On the problem of folk linguistics). - Lingvistychni studii. Cherkassy, 1999, # 3. - 13-20. Yavorska G. Dejaki osoblyvosti movnykh kontaktiv blyz'kosporidnenykh mov (do kharakterystyky ukrain's'koho puryzmu) (On contacts of closely related languages: some features of Ukrainian purism). In memoria of K. Trofymovych. L'viv, Litopys, 1998.

Other sources for reference (by Bilaniuk)

• The Languages of Ukraine’s Orange Revolution. REECAS Newsletter, Russian, East European & Central Asian Studies, Jackson School of International Studies, University of Washington (Spring).
• A typology of surzhyk: mixed Ukrainian-Russian language. International Journal of Bilingualism 8(4):409-425.
• Gender, language attitudes, and language status in Ukraine. Language in Society. 32:47-78.
• Pidsvidome stavlennia do mov: zerkalo movnoï polityky. (Subconscious language attitudes: a mirror of language politics.) Urok Ukraïnskoï (Ukrainian journal for educators and language planners). Kyiv. 7:5-8. [Based on 1998 "Purity & power" data.]
• Kartyna movnoho svitohliadu v Ukraïni. (Linguistic ideology in Ukraine). Movoznavstvo (major Ukrainian linguistics journal). 4/5:44-51. [Based on 1997 "Matching guises" data.]
• Movna krytyka i samovpevnenist': ideolohichni vplyvy na status mov v Ukraïni. [Linguistic criticism and self-confidence: ideological influences on language status in Ukraine]. Derzhavnist' ukraïns'koï movy i movnyi dosvid svitu: materialy mizhnarodnoï konferentsiï. *Kyiv: National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine. Pp. 131-138.
• Speaking of surzhyk: ideologies and mixed languages. Harvard Ukrainian Studies. 21(1/2):93-117.
• Purity and power: the geography of language ideology in Ukraine. Michigan Discussions in Anthropology 13:165-189.
• Matching guises and mapping language ideologies in Ukraine. Texas Linguistic Forum 37:298-310.

See also

• Register (linguistics)
• Ausbausprache - Abstandsprache - Dachsprache
• Standard language
• Dialect continuum
• Pluricentric language
• Bilingualism
• Sociolinguistics