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Direct Action Day, also known as the Affirmative Action Plan, the Calcutta Riots, the Great Calcutta killings, and "The Week of the Long Knives" ^[1][2], started on August 16, 1946. It was a day when the Muslim League planned peaceful protests all over India to voice the Muslim demand for a separate homeland during the Indian Freedom Struggle against the British Raj. This protest was followed by massive riots in Calcutta touched off by the Muslim League and led to further riots in the surrounding regions of Bengal and Bihar by Muslims against Hindus and Sikhs, followed by retaliatory attacks on Muslims by Congress followers and supporters. Image File history File links Circle-question-red. ... Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... Image File history File links Circle-question. ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... August 16 is the 228th day of the year (229th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... Nawab Khwaja Salimullah Khan, Founder of the Muslim League The All India Muslim League (Urdu: مسلم لیگ), founded at Dhaka in 1906, was a political party in British India and was the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state from British India on the Indian subcontinent. ... A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Turkish: Müslüman, Persian and Urdu: مسلمان, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of Islam. ... The Indian independence movement incorporated the efforts by Indians to liberate the region from British rule and form the nation-state of India. ... The flag of British India British India, circa 1860 The British Raj (Raj in Hindi meaning Rule; from Sanskrit Rajya) was the British rule between 1858 and 1947 of the Indian Subcontinent, which included the present-day India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Burma (Myanmar), whereby these lands were under the colonial... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ... Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in the Bengali language, is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ... Bihar (Hindi: बिहार, Urdu: بہار, IPA: ,  ) is a state of the Indian union situated in the eastern part of the country. ... This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ... A Sikh (IPA: or ; Punjabi: , , IPA: ) is an adherent of Sikhism. ...

Background

In 1946, the Indian independence movement against the British Raj had reached a pivotal stage when the British Cabinet sent a Mission to India aimed to discuss and finalize plans for the transfer of power from the British Raj to Indian leadership, providing India with independence under Dominion status in the Commonwealth of Nations. The Mission held talks with the representatives of the Indian National Congress and the All India Muslim League, the two largest political parties in the Constituent Assembly of India. After initial dialogue, the Mission proposed plans over the composition of the new government. The Indian independence movement incorporated the efforts by Indians to liberate the region from British rule and form the nation-state of India. ... The flag of British India British India, circa 1860 The British Raj (Raj in Hindi meaning Rule; from Sanskrit Rajya) was the British rule between 1858 and 1947 of the Indian Subcontinent, which included the present-day India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Burma (Myanmar), whereby these lands were under the colonial... The British Cabinet Mission of 1946 to India aimed to discuss and finalize plans for the transfer of power from the British Raj to Indian leadership, providing India with independence under Dominion status in the Commonwealth of Nations. ... The flag of British India British India, circa 1860 The British Raj (Raj in Hindi meaning Rule; from Sanskrit Rajya) was the British rule between 1858 and 1947 of the Indian Subcontinent, which included the present-day India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Burma (Myanmar), whereby these lands were under the colonial... The Commonwealth of Nations (CN), usually known as The Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of 53 independent sovereign states all of which are former colonies of the United Kingdom, except for Mozambique and the United Kingdom itself. ... Indian National Congress (also known as the Congress Party or Congress (I), abbreviated INC) is a major political party in India. ... Muhammed Ali Jinnah, the Great Leader of the Muslim League The All India Muslim League was a political party in British India was the driving force behind the creation of a Muslim state on the Indian subcontinent. ... The Constituent Assembly of India was elected to write the Constitution of India, and served as its first Parliament as an independent nation. ...

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the one time Congressman and now the leader of the Muslim League, had accepted the Cabinet Mission Plan whereas the Congress rejected it^[3]. Jinnah denounced the British Cabinet Mission and decided to try and put pressure on Congress and the British, by resorting to civil disobedience. Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Urdu: محمد على جناح)  (December 25, 1876 – September 11, 1948) was an Indian Muslim politician and leader of the All India Muslim League who founded Pakistan and served as its first Governor-General. ...

According to Margaret Bourke-white, in July 1946, Jinnah held a press conference at his home in Bombay where he declared his intent to create the Pakistan. Margaret Bourke-White, a LIFE magazine correspondent, wrote extensively about the meeting. Jinnah proclaimed that the Muslim league was "preparing to launch a struggle" and that they "have chalked a plan" ^[4]. He had decided to boycott the Constituent Assembly. He rejected the British plan for transfer of power to an interim government which would combine both the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress. He attacked the Congress and called it "Hindu dominated". He said that if the Muslims were not granted Pakistan then he would launch "Direct Action". When asked to specify Jinnah retorted: This article or section should be merged with Mumbai Mumbai (previously known as Bombay) is the worlds most populous conurbation, and is the sixth most populous agglomeration in the world. ... Margaret Bourke-White (1904-1971) USPS stamp depicting LIFE magazine cover bearing Fort Peck Dam photograph Margaret Bourke-White (June 14, 1904 – August 27, 1971) was an American photographer and photojournalist. ... For other uses, see Life (disambiguation), Lives (disambiguation) or Living (disambiguation), Living Things (disambiguation). ...

He further declared:

On the next day, Jinnah is claimed to have said allegedly on August 16, 1946, "Direct Action Day" for the purpose of winning the separate Muslim state: Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah of Pakistan Mohammad Ali Jinnah (referred to in Pakistan as Quaid-e-Azam, or Great Leader, which is a legally defined title) (December 25, 1876 - September 11, 1948) was an Indian Muslim nationalist, who led the movement demanding a separate homeland for Muslims in... August 16 is the 228th day of the year (229th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar. ... 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ...

This quote however does not find favor with Jinnah's biographers. ^{[6] [7] [8]}

In terms of a resolution of the Muslim League Council Meeting held during the period 27 July – 29 July 1946, the Direct Action Day was intended to unfold “direct action for the achievement of Pakistan.” Nawab Khwaja Salimullah Khan, Founder of the Muslim League The All India Muslim League (Urdu: مسلم لیگ), founded at Dhaka in 1906, was a political party in British India and was the driving force behind the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state from British India on the Indian subcontinent. ... July 27 is the 208th day (209th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 157 days remaining. ... July 29 is the 210th day (211th in leap years) of the year in the Gregorian Calendar, with 155 days remaining. ... 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ...

Another account is given H V Hodson in his famous book "The Great Divide" in which he writes:

"The working committee followed up by calling on Muslims through out India to observe 16th August as direct action day. On that Day meeting would be held all over the country to explain League's resolution. These meetings and processions passed of- as was manifestly the Central league leaders' intention- without more than commonplace and limited disturbance with one vast and tragic exception... what happened was more than anyone could have foreseen." ^[9]

Riots in Calcutta

Causes and prelude

There are several views on the exact cause of the direct action day riots. According to the Hindu and Sikh intelligentsia, riots, instigated by members of the Muslim League in the city, were the consequence of the declaration by the Muslim League that Muslims throughout the subcontinent were to 'suspend all business' to support their demand for an independent Pakistan. The Muslims believed that the Congress Party was behind the violence in an effort to bring the fragile cross-communal Muslim League ministry in Bengal.

In April 1946, following a period of direct rule by the governor, new provincial elections returned another Muslim League ministry in Calcutta. It was headed by Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. Following the Muslim League's condemnation of the Cabinet Mission, Suhrawardy heeded Jinnah's call for "Direct Action Day" in August, and demanded a "public holiday", claiming that even the police would "take the day off". Muslims in Calcutta took that to indicate that they were free to riot ^[10]. The Statesman wrote about the ensuing riots: Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (September 8, 1892 - December 5, 1963) was a politician from Bengal in undivided India, and later in East Pakistan, who served as Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1956 until 1957. ...

Following the protests against the British on I.N.A day and Abdul Rashid Day, the British decided to prioritize protests against them over communal violence in their "Emergency Action Scheme". British high officials such as Sixsmith and Walker vehemently opposed any intervention in Muslim-Hindu matters by the police^[12].

The absence of the police during the riots in Calcutta during "Direct Action Day" is the best illustration of this posture^[12] .

Riots and massacres

Dead and wounded after the 'Direct Action Day' which developed into pitched battles as Hindu mobs were let loose on the Muslims,Calcutta in 1946, the year before independence

The violence started on the morning of the day when Muslim League volunteers forced Hindu shopkeepers in North Calcutta to close their shops and Hindus retaliated by obstructing the passage of League's processions^[13]. Hindu underworld targetted Muslim League processions. Image File history File links Calcutta_1946_riot. ... Image File history File links Calcutta_1946_riot. ... This article is on Calcutta/Kolkata, the city. ...

The League organized a rally at Ochterloney Monument. The Muslim League Chief Minister in his address reportedly assured the audience that the military and police had been 'restrained'. This was interpreted by the gathering as an open invitation to commit violence on the Hindus. Subsequently, there were reports of lorries (trucks) that came thundering down Harrison Road in Calcutta, carrying Muslim men armed with brickbats and bottles as weapons and attacking Hindu shops^[4].

The Hindus had already been armed to the teeth by Patel and the Congress Party and they responded with a ferocity. What followed was a terrible massacre of Muslims by the Hindus ^[14].

Static guards took over from police guards and a party of troops under Major Littleboy, the Assistant Provost-Marshal, did valuable work in the rescue organisation for displaced and needy persons. Outside the 'military' areas, the situation worsened hourly. Buses and taxis were charging about loaded with Sikhs and Hindus armed with swords, iron bars and firearms.

^[15]

Noted Indian historian Sita Ram Goel, his wife and first son were witnesses to the riots. He writes in his autobiographical work "How I became a Hindu" that he "would have been killed by a Muslim mob" but his fluent Urdu and his Western dress saved him. And he writes that on the evening of the 17th he and his wife and son "had to vacate that house and scale a wall at the back to escape murderous Muslim mobs advancing with firearms."^[16] Sita Ram Goel (Devanāgarī: सीता राम गोयल, Sītā Rām Goyal) (1921–2003), author and publisher, is an important figure amongst late 20th century Hindu thinkers. ... How I Became a Hindu is an autobiography by Sita Ram Goel, published in 1982 and enlarged in 1993. ... (اردو), historically spelled Ordu, is an Indo-Aryan language of the Indo-Iranian branch, belonging to Indo-European family of languages. ...

The riots became heavier on the fourth day.The weapons shifted from bottles to iron staves. The military brought tanks into the city and gunned down the mobs, and the police made a belated appearance.

Jugal Chandra Ghosh, a local Hindu, said the following at the time of the riots:

The region most affected by the violence was the densely populated sector of the city bounded by Bowbazar Street on the south, Upper Circular Road on the east, Vivekananda Road on the north and Strand Road on the west. Official estimate put the casualties at 4,000 dead and 100,000 injured.Other sources put the death toll at 6,000^[17].Most of the victims were Hindus^[13]. The rioting reduced on the 22nd of the same month^[18]. This article discusses the adherents of Hinduism. ...

Comparison with earlier riots

While in earlier riots in Calcutta shops dealing with immediate consumer goods or items whose price had just risen were mostly looted, in the riot of 1946 any shop was an object of attack, the only discriminatory feature being Muslims exclusively pillaging Hindu shops.

What most distinguished the 1946 riots from previous outbreaks was its highly organised nature. The Muslim League mobilised all its frontal organisations to make the 'Day' a success. Special coupons for gallons of petrol (gasoline) were issued in the names of League ministers to be used by their party functionaries to incinerate Hindu businesses. One month's food ration for 10,000 people was allegedly drawn in advance to feed the League activists. Once the riots began the Chief Minister, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, accompanied by his political aids, spent considerable time in the Police Control Room to allegedly "shield" Muslims from "police operations" while Muslims executed the riots. On the other hand, Marwari merchants reportedly purchased arms and ammunitions from American soldiers, which were later used during the riot. Acid bombs were manufactured and stored in Hindu-owned factories before the outbreak. Calcutta's Hindu blacksmiths were mobilised to prepare spearheads and other weapons ^[18]. Gasoline, as it is known in North America, or petrol, in many Commonwealth countries (sometimes also called motor spirit) is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. ... Gasoline or petrol is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting mostly of hydrocarbons and enhanced with benzene or iso-octane to increase octane ratings, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. ... Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (September 8, 1892 - December 5, 1963) was a politician from Bengal in undivided India, and later in East Pakistan, who served as Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1956 until 1957. ... A Muslim (Arabic: مسلم, Turkish: Müslüman, Persian and Urdu: مسلمان, Bosnian: Musliman) is an adherent of Islam. ... The Marwari (also variously Marvari, Marwadi, Marvadi) is a language originating in the Western Indian state of Rajasthan, but is also found in the neighboring state of Gujarat and in Eastern Pakistan. ...

Muslim League however was acquitted of these accusations by the Administration. Lord Wavell writing to Pethick Lawrence said: Sir Archibald Wavell Field Marshal Sir Archibald Percival Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell, GCB, GCSI, GCIE, CMG, MC, PC (May 5, 1883 – May 24, 1950) was a British Field Marshal and the commander of British Army forces in the Middle East during World War II. He led British forces to victory...

"Last weekend has seen dreadful riots in Calcutta. The estimates of casualties is 3000 dead and 17000 injured. The Bengal Congress are convinced that all the trouble was deliberately engineered by the Muslim League Ministry, but no satisfactory evidence to that effect has reached me yet. It is said that the decision to have a public holiday on 16th August was the cause of trouble, but I think this is very far-fetched. There was a public holiday in Sind and there was no trouble there. At any rate, whatever the causes of the outbreak, when it started, the Hindus and Sikhs were every bit as fierce as Muslims. The present estimate is that appreciably more Muslims were killed than the Hindus"^ ^[19]

Aftermath

After the riots died down, thousands began fleeing Calcutta. For several days the Howrah Bridge over the Hooghly river was crowded with evacuees headed for the railway station on the Howrah side of the bridge. Many of them would not escape the violence that spread out into the region from Calcutta ^[4]. The Howrah Bridge spans the Hooghly River, linking Howrah to Kolkata. ... The Hoogli River (alternatively spelled Hooghly) is a distributary of the Ganges River in India. ... Howrah (also spelled Haora) is an industrial city in West Bengal, India. ...

Members of the Indian National Congress, including Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru responded negatively to the riots and expressed shock. The riots would lead to further rioting and pogroms against Hindus and Sikhs by Muslims, together with retaliatory attacks against Muslims. These events sowed the seeds for the eventual Partition of India.^[10] Indian National Congress (also known as the Congress Party or Congress (I), abbreviated INC) is a major political party in India. ... Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (October 2, 1869 – January 30, 1948) (Devanagari: मोहनदास करमचन्द गांधी, Gujarati મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી), called... Jawaharlal Nehru (Hindi: , IPA: ) (November 14, 1889 – May 27, 1964) was a senior political leader of the Indian National Congress, was a pivotal figure during the Indian independence movement and served as the first Prime Minister of the Republic of India. ... Pogrom (from Russian: ; from громить IPA: - to wreak havoc, to demolish violently) is a form of riot directed against a particular group, whether ethnic, religious or other, and characterized by destruction of their homes, businesses and religious centers. ... Britains holdings on the Indian subcontinent were granted independence in 1947 and 1948, becoming four new independent states: India, Burma (now Myanmar), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and Pakistan (including East Pakistan, modern-day Bangladesh). ...

Noakhali massacre

An important incident following Direct Action Day was the Noakhali district massacre on October 1946. Noakhali, a district in what is now the Nation of Bangladesh, had a Muslim majority. About three-fourth of the land belonged to the Hindu landlords and the tenants were mostly Muslims. The Direct Action Day riots in Calcutta spread to other regions, reaching this district where a massive pogrom was organized against the Hindu minority. The death toll is estimated to be in the thousands, with 51-75 thousand Hindus ethnically cleansed from the region ^[20]. Noakhali is a district in South-eastern Bangladesh. ... Pogrom (from Russian: ; from громить IPA: - to wreak havoc, to demolish violently) is a form of riot directed against a particular group, whether ethnic, religious or other, and characterized by destruction of their homes, businesses and religious centers. ... Armenian civilians, being cleansed from their homeland during the Armenian Genocide. ...

The riots and massacres

</ref>.Many Hindu temples were looted and destroyed. Hindus were forced to throw deities into the Ganges river and Muslim mobs forced them to consume beef, which is disallowed in Hinduism^[4] Early morning on the Ganges The River Ganges (Ganga in Indian languages) (Devanagiri &#2327;&#2306;&#2327;&#2366;) is a major river in northern India. ... For other uses, see Beef (disambiguation). ... Hinduism - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ...

The horror and the underlying conspiracy of this occurrence can best be described in the words of S. L. Ghosh of the A. B. Patrika, quoted below. Says S. L. Ghosh:

"The horror of the Noakhali outrage is unique in modern history in that it was not a simple case of turbulent members of the majority community (Muslims) killing off helpless members of the minority Hindu community, but was one whose chief aim was mass conversion, accompanied by loot, arson and wholesale devastation... No section of the Hindu community has been spared, the wealthier classes being dealt with more drastically. Abduction and outrage of Hindu women and forcible marriages were also resorted. The slogans used and the methods employed indicate that it was all part of a plan for the simultaneous establishment of Pakistan."

Involvement of the Muslim League Government

According to most historians no evidence was found of Muslim League's involvement in the riots. Infact evidence to the contrary was found of Congress' involvement in the rioting:

‘On August 21, Wavell informed Pethick Lawrence that “the present estimate” of casualties was 3000 dead and 17,000 injured. Congress was convinced that all the trouble was deliberately engineered by the Muslim League ministry but the Viceroy had as yet seen no “satisfactory evidence to that effect.” The latest estimate of casualties was that “appreciably more Muslims than Hindus were killed”

^[21]

Lord Wavell wrote to Pethick Lawrence:

Last weekend has seen dreadful riots in Calcutta. The estimates of casualties is 3000 dead and 17000 injured. The Bengal Congress are convinced that all the trouble was deliberately engineered by the Muslim League Ministry, but no satisfactory evidence to that effect has reached me yet. It is said that the decision to have a public holiday on 16th August was the cause of trouble, but I think this is very far-fetched. There was a public holiday in Sind and there was no trouble there. At any rate, whatever the causes of the outbreak, when it started, the Hindus and Sikhs were every bit as fierce as Muslims. The present estimate is that appreciably more Muslims were killed than the Hindus ^[22].

Hindu and Sikhs blamed the Muslim League Government in Bengal for aiding the murderers. Ex-servicemen in Bengal joined in committing the atrocities ^[23]. There were reports of rioters chanting slogans like "Long Live the League", "Long Live Pakistan", "Fighting, we will get Pakistan", "Killing, we will get Pakistan"^[24].It is believed that the Muslim League chose this district specifically for its Muslim majority and the ease by which Hindus could be targeted for extermination. Noted investigative journalist Subodh Ghosh of the Ananda Bazar Patrika was a witness to the pogroms^[20]. He claimed the nature of the massacres as planned by the Muslim League, quoting: Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in the Bengali language, is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ... Subodh Ghosh (1909-1980) was a noted Bengali author. ... Ananda Bazar Patrika is one of the premier Bengali language daily newspapers in India. ...

He concluded that there was a deliberate delay in disseminating news of the masscre (4 days), pointing to a "criminal inefficiency" of the Muslim League administration. It took 10 additional days for the Army to arrive in the region and another month to "comb the interior of the devastated countryside". He went on to quote that the objective of the Noakhali carnage was "mass conversion to Islam, accompanied by loot, arson and wholesale devastation": Islam (Arabic:  ) is a monotheistic religion based upon the teachings of Muhammad, a 7th century Arab religious and political figure. ...

This view however is contradicted by historical record which states otherwise and reduces this is to a biased one sided view.

The Congress Mouthpiece "Blitz" wrote this about the direct action day:

The worst enemies of the Muslim League cannot help envying the leadership of Mr Jinnah. Last week's cataclysmic transformation of the League from the reactionary racket of the Muslim Nawabs, Noons, and Knights into a revolutionary mass organisation dedicated, by word if not be deed, to an anti-Imperialist struggle, compels us to express the sneaking national wish that a diplomat and strategist of Jinnah's proven calibre were at the held of the Indian National Congress. There is no denying the fact that by his latest master-stroke of diplomacy Jinnah has outbid, outwitted and outmaneuvered the British and Congress alike and confounded the common national indictment that the Muslim League is a parasite of British Imperialism

Mediation by Gandhi

The neutrality and factual accuracy of this article are disputed. Please see the relevant discussion on the talk page.

Mohandas Gandhi, upon the request of his associate Muriel Lester ^[25], attempted to mediate the consequences of the rioting by visiting Noakhali on 6 November 1946, almost three months after his followers had butchered Muslims. He tried to reason with both Muslim and Hindu communities. However, he advised Hindus "not to resist Muslim attacks" as per his philosophy of non-violent resistance. The Muslim League retaliated against Gandhi by spreading propaganda against him ^{[23] [26]}. Similar anti-Hindu pogroms took place in the Comilla cantonment in Bengal. Image File history File links Circle-question-red. ... Image File history File links Unbalanced_scales. ... Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (October 2, 1869 &#8211; January 30, 1948) (Devanagari: &#2350;&#2379;&#2361;&#2344;&#2342;&#2366;&#2360; &#2325;&#2352;&#2350;&#2330;&#2344;&#2381;&#2342; &#2327;&#2366;&#2306;&#2343;&#2368;, Gujarati &#2734;&#2763;&#2745;&#2728;&#2726;&#2750;&#2744; &#2709;&#2736;&#2734;&#2714;&#2690;&#2726; &#2711;&#2750;&#2690;&#2727;&#2752;), called... November 6 is the 310th day of the year (311th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 55 days remaining. ... 1946 (MCMXLVI) was a common year starting on Tuesday. ... Nonviolence (or non-violence) is a set of assumptions about morality, power and conflict that leads its proponents to reject the use of violence in efforts to attain social or political goals. ... Anti-Hindu leaflet launched by fundamentalist Christian churches Anti-Hindu prejudice is a negative perception against Hinduism, Hindus and Indian or Hindu culture. ... Comilla (3085. ... Bengal, known as Bôngo (Bengali: বঙ্গ), Bangla (বাংলা), Bôngodesh (বঙ্গদেশ), or Bangladesh (বাংলাদেশ) in the Bengali language, is a region in the northeast of South Asia. ...

Further rioting in the Indian subcontinent

Please help improve this article by expanding this section. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for expansion. Please remove this message once the section has been expanded. This article has been tagged since January 2007.

The Direct Action Day riots sparked off several riots between Muslims and Hindus/Sikhs in Bihar, Punjab, and the North Western Frontier Province in that year. Image File history File links Wiki_letter_w. ... Bihar (Hindi: बिहार, Urdu: بہار, IPA: ,  ) is a state of the Indian union situated in the eastern part of the country. ... Punjab was a province of British India. ... North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) is geographically the smallest of the four provinces of Pakistan. ...

References

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888 - August 1958) was a freedom fighter in Indias struggle for Independence from Britain. ... Margaret Bourke-White (1904-1971) USPS stamp depicting LIFE magazine cover bearing Fort Peck Dam photograph Margaret Bourke-White (June 14, 1904 – August 27, 1971) was an American photographer and photojournalist. ... John Keay (born 1941) is a British writer and historian. ... Rajmohan Gandhi is a biographer and grandson of Mahatma Gandhi. ...

See also

• Partition of India