Aquatint of a Doctor in Divinity at the University of Oxford, in the scarlet and black academic robes corresponding to his position. From R. Ackermann's History of Oxford, 1814.

A doctorate is an academic degree of the highest level. Traditionally, the award of a doctorate implies recognition of the candidate as an equal by the university faculty under which he or she studied. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (548x658, 57 KB) Aquatint of a Doctor in divinity at the University of Oxford. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (548x658, 57 KB) Aquatint of a Doctor in divinity at the University of Oxford. ... Aquatint is an intaglio printmaking technique. ... The University of Oxford, located in the city of Oxford, England, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. ... It has been suggested that Professional degree be merged into this article or section. ... Representation of a university class, 1350s. ...

Explanation

There are three types of doctorates: research/terminal, (first) professional, and honorary.

Research doctorates are nearly always awarded in recognition of academic research that is of a publishable standard (even if not actually published) and that represents at least a modest contribution to human knowledge. The research is usually assessed by submission and defense of a doctoral thesis or dissertation, though in some cases a coherent body of published literature can be accepted instead. A thesis committee (or, at some universities, specifically for the doctorate, a dissertation committee) is a committee that evaluates a graduate students thesis. ... Look up thesis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... This article is about the thesis in dialectics and academia. ...

Professional doctorates are awarded in certain fields where most holders of the degree are not engaged primarily in scholarly research and academic activities, but rather in a profession, such as law, medicine, music, or ministry.

Honorary doctorates are awarded for a substantial contribution to a field that need not be academic in character. An Honorary degree (Latin: honoris causa ad gradum) is a degree awarded to someone by an institution that he or she may have never attended, it may be a bachelors, masters or doctorate degree - however, the latter is most common. ...

In the EU, UK, and in Australia as well as some other Commonwealth countries, a distinction is made among research doctorates, as doctorates (generally awarded after a course of 3-5 years postgraduate research and study and submission of a thesis), and higher doctorates — awarded on the basis of many years of outstanding research, judged through examination of a formally submitted collection of published research. These higher doctorates are often awarded honoris causa, but those awarded on the basis of academic research are not honorary. The Commonwealth of Nations (CN), usually known as the Commonwealth, is a voluntary association of 53 independent sovereign states, the majority of which are former colonies of the United Kingdom. ... Honoris causa (plural: Causae) is a Latin term meaning for the sake of honor, abbreviated as . ...

The title of "Doctor" is often used both by and of those holding research doctorates or limited professional (usually medical) doctorates. In the UK and most Commonwealth countries this title has for many centuries also been accorded to holders of the degree of Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery (equivalent to the degree of Doctor of Medicine in the US and elsewhere). However in the UK, for historical reasons, consultant surgeons are not addressed as "Doctor", but as Mister, Miss, etc. The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Doctor of Medicine (M.D., from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor) is an academic degree. ...

In practice, the title of "Doctor" is not generally used by or of those holding only an honorary doctorate. While it is entirely legal and allowable to do so (since a university is empowered to grant a doctorate to anyone it chooses) it is generally regarded as bad form, although there are a number of notable figures (such as the Northern Irish politician Ian Paisley) who do not follow this convention. However, some consider it permissible to do so within the institution that granted the honorary doctorate. Northern Ireland is an administrative region and one of four parts of the United Kingdom. ... Ian Paisley may also refer to Ian Paisley, Jr. ...

In the past, in the United States a person with a research doctorate would use the title "doctor" in an academic or research/development setting, and in publication. However it is becoming more common to use the title if working in a corporate setting. This is the case in most continents. In some countries the term "doctor" may be used as a title of respect even if the person being addressed has no doctoral degree. There are research organizations (particularly in the private sector, as in the software business) where most staff members have PhD's. In these, it would be redundant and often silly to address everyone as "doctor." Here, people typically call each other by their first names, which they all know. Computer software (or simply software) refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of a computer for some purpose. ...

The earliest doctoral degrees (theology — Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.), philosophy — Doctor of philosophy (D. Phil or Ph. D.) and medicine — Medicinæ Doctor (M.D. or D.M.)) reflected the historical separation of all University study into these three fields. Over time the Divinitatis Doctorate has gradually become less common, and studies outside of theology and medicine have become more common (such studies were then called "philosophy", but are now classified as sciences and humanities — however the phrase Doctor of philosophy degree remains in common usage).

A doctorate, like a wine, can have a vintage. At Xerox PARC, in the 1980's, staffers commented that "Everybody has a PhD in Computer Science, but we don't hire just anybody who has one. Most people here have good ones, from the sixties." (After the 1960's, many important thesis topics had been used up, so many later dissertations were relatively unoriginal. A computer scientist looking for a colleague to work on a specific project might pick someone whose dissertation topic was related to the project, in the hope that that person might know something useful. ) Xerox Corporation (NYSE: XRX) is an American document management company, which manufactures and sells a range of color and black-and-white printers, multifunction systems, photo copiers, digital production printing presses, and related consulting services and supplies. ... Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) was a flagship research division of the Xerox Corporation, based in Palo Alto, California, USA. It was founded in 1970 and spun out as a separate company in 2002. ...

Professional doctorate

In the United States, professional doctoral degrees (also called first professional degrees) are terminal degrees in certain fields, including audiology, chiropractic, dentistry, law, medicine, occupational therapy, optometry, osteopathy, pharmacy, physical therapy, podiatry, psychology, veterinary medicine, and many others. Although this degree may be both the initial and terminal degree in these fields, students seeking to enter degree programs for them must have already completed a bachelor's degree, usually in a related field. The licentiate is used instead in some countries as a professional degree; then, the doctorate is higher degree than licentiate, intended for research and professor duties, etc. Audiology is the branch of science that studies hearing, balance, and their disorders. ... Chiropractic is a complementary and alternative health care profession which focuses on diagnosing, treating, and preventing mechanical disorders of the musculoskeletal system, their effects on the nervous system, and on general health. ... A Dentist and Dental Assistant perform surgery on a patient. ... // Balancing scales are symbolic of how law mediates peoples interests For other senses of this word, see Law (disambiguation). ... This article is about the field and science of medical practice and health care. ... It has been suggested that Occupational therapist be merged into this article or section. ... Optometry (Greek: optos meaning seen or visible and metria meaning measurement) is the health care profession concerned with examination, diagnosis, and treatment of the eyes and related structures and with determination and correction of vision problems using lenses and other optical aids [1]. An optical refractor (also called a phoropter... Osteopathy is a (Oxford English Dictionary). ... Bowl of Hygeia Pharmacy (from the Greek φάρμακον = drug) is a transitional field between health sciences and chemical sciences and a profession charged with ensuring the safe use of medication. ... This article concerns the health profession. ... Podiatry or Podiatric Medicine is a field of healthcare devoted to the study and treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, and sometimes knee, leg and hip (collectively known as the lower extremity). ... Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. ... Veterinary medicine is the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife, and production animals. ... A bachelors degree (Artium Baccalaureus, A.B. or B.A.) is usually an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three, four, or in some cases and countries, five or six years. ... Licentiate is the title of a person who holds an academic degree called a license. ...

Terminal/professional doctoral degrees such as the M.D. and J.D. do not generally require completion of a thesis/dissertation, although some professional degree programs (such as many J.D. programs) require that the candidate perform original research and write a formal research paper. The minimum term for such a degree is 3 years past postsecondary education, the same minimum term required for a research doctorate. While these degrees are not research doctorates, they do entitle their holders to pursue academic careers on par with holders of academic degrees. Actual practice (and legal recognition) within the applicable professional field usually requires that the degree holder become licenced by the appropriate body (an organization not affiliated with the school granting the degree); a certain amount of work experience is sometimes required for licensure. The titles from these degrees are not equivalent to the same title conferred in other countries. For example, outside the United States (and countries that mimic the North American medical educational system), the title of M.D or D.M. may be conferred only as a research or a higher doctorate. This degree is in recognition of clinical or preclinical academic research many years after the original (professional or first) degree in medicine or veterinary medicine. Post-secondary education is a form of secondary education that is taken after first attending a secondary school, such as a high school. ... Doctor of Medicine (M.D., from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor) is an academic degree. ...

Research doctorate

The most common type of research doctorate is a Ph.D. (Philosophiæ Doctor or Doctor of Philosophy), though there are many other designations, listed below. Some British universities, including Oxford and Sussex (and until recently York) refer to the Ph. D. degree as the D.Phil. Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. ... The University of Oxford, located in the city of Oxford, England, is the oldest university in the English-speaking world. ... The University of Sussex is an English campus university located near the East Sussex village of Falmer, near Brighton and Hove. ... The University of York is a campus university in York, England. ... Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. ...

Minimum periods for research doctorates vary considerably: In the UK and USA the minimum time for completing a Ph.D. is usually three years following the completion of a master's degree. Although completions within this period are possible, most candidates take considerably longer: anywhere from five to ten years. During the late 1990s, the UK research councils introduced penalties (in the form of a reduction of future funding) for departments whose students regularly failed to submit their thesis within four years (full time) from initial registration. Students in the physical sciences typically have shorter completion times than students in the arts due to their better access to funding sources. In the USA, the research doctorate normally requires two to three years of coursework and a minimum of three years of research. Coursework is increasingly becoming a required component in research doctorates around the world. Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. ... A masters degree is an academic degree usually awarded for completion of a postgraduate (or graduate) course of one to three years in duration. ...

Although the Ph.D. is almost universally accepted as the standard qualification for an academic career, it is a relatively new invention. The older-style doctorates (now usually called "Higher Doctorates" in the United Kingdom) take much longer to complete, since candidates must show themselves to be leading experts in their subjects. These doctorates are now becoming rare, and are usually only awarded as honorary degrees. In France, the higher doctorate is the doctorat d'État. The latter was replaced for academic recruitment purposes by the "habilitation to direct theses". The Habilitation is still used for academic recruitment purposes in many countries within the EU and is a research doctorate involving either a new long thesis (a second book) or a portfolio of research publications. The Habilitation demonstrates independent and thorough research, experience in teaching and lecturing, and, more recently, the ability to generate funding within the area of research. The "Habilitation" is regarded as a senior post-doctoral qualification, many years after the Ph.D., and is necessary for a Privatdozent position. Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. ... An honorary degree (Latin: honoris causa ad gradum, not to be confused with an honors degree) is an academic degree awarded to an individual as a decoration, rather than as the result of matriculating and studying for several years. ... Look up thesis in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Habilitation is a term used within the university system in France, Germany, Austria, and some other European countries such as the German-speaking part of Switzerland, in Bulgaria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, and countries of former Soviet Union, such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kirgizstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Uzbekistan... Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. ... Privatdozent (PD or Priv. ...

A similar system traditionally holds in Russia. Already in the Russian Empire the academic degree doctor of science (doctor nauki) marked the highest academic degree which can be achieved by an examination. This system was generally adopted by the USSR/Russia and many post-Soviet countries.

Under European law, holders of research doctorates from any EU country are recognised in others.

Types of Doctorates

Research Oriented Doctorates

While the Ph.D. is the most common doctoral degree, and even often (mis)understood to be synonymous with the term "doctorate", the U.S. Department of Education and the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) recognize numerous doctoral degrees as equivalent, and do not discriminate among them: Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. ... The United States Department of Education was created in 1979 (by PL 96-88) as a Cabinet-level department of the United States government, and began operating in 1980. ... The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent United States government agency responsible for supporting basic science research mainly by providing research funding. ...

• Doctor of Applied Science (D.A.S.)
• Doctor of Architecture (D.Arch.)
• Doctor of Arts (D.A.)
• Doctor of Business Administration (D.B.A.)
• Doctor of Canon Law (J.C.D.)
• Doctor of Chemistry (D.Chem.)
• Doctor of Comparative Law/Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.)
• Doctor of Computer Science (D.C.S.)
• Doctor of Criminal Justice (D.C.J.)
• Doctor of Criminology (D.Crim.)
• Doctor of Design (Dr. DES.)
• Doctor of Education (Ed. D. or D.Ed.)
• Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng.)
• Doctor of Engineering Science (D.E.Sc./Sc. D.E.)
• Doctor of Environmental Design (D.E.D.)
• Doctor of Environmental Science and Engineering (D.Env.)
• Doctor of Fine Arts (D.F.A.)
• Doctor of Forestry (D.F.)
• Doctor of Geological Science (D.G.S.)
• Doctor of Health and Safety (D.H.S.)
• Doctor of Hebrew Literature/Doctor of Hebrew Letters (D.H.L.)
• Doctor of Hebrew Studies (D.H.S.)
• Doctor of Humane Letters (D.Hum. Litt.)
• Doctor of Industrial Technology (D.I.T.)
• Doctor of Information Technology (D.I.T.)
• Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D. or J.S.D.)
• Doctor of Literature and Philosophy (D.Litt. et Phil.)
• Doctor of Liberal Studies (D.L.S.)
• Doctor of Library Science (D.L.S.)
• Doctor of Management (D.M.)
• Doctor of Medical Science (D.M.Sc.)
• Doctor of Ministry (D.Min./D.M.)
• Doctor of Modern Languages (D.M.L.)
• Doctor of Music Ministry (D.M.M.)
• Doctor of Music (D.Mus, Mus. Doc.)
• Doctor of Musical Arts (D.M.A., A.Mus. D.)
• Doctor of Musical Education (D.M.E.)
• Doctor of Nursing Science (D.N.Sc.)
• Doctor of Project Management (D.P.M.)
• Doctor of Physical Education (D.P.E.)
• Doctor of Public Administration (D.P.A.)
• Doctor of Public Health (Dr. P.H.)
• Doctor of Professional Studies (D.Prof./D.P.S.)
• Doctor of Recreation (D.Rec./D.R.)
• Doctor of Rehabilitation (Rh. D.)
• Doctor of Religious Education (D.R.E.)
• Doctor of Sacred Music (D.S.M.)
• Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D.)
• Doctor of Science (D.Sc./Sc. D.)
• Doctor of Science and Hygiene (D.Sc. H.)
• Doctor of Science in Dentistry (D.Sc. D.)
• Doctor of Science in Veterinary Medicine (D.Sc. V.M.)
• Doctor of Social Science (D.S.Sc.)
• Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W.)
• Doctor of the Science of Law (L.Sc. D.)
• Doctor of Theology (Th. D.)
• Executive Doctor of Management) (EDM)

The Doctor of Architecture (DArch) or Architectural Doctorate (Arch D) degree is a doctoral degree in the field of Architecture. ... The Doctor of Arts (D.A., or occasionally D.Arts. ... The degree of Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) is a research-oriented doctorate. ... Doctor of Canon Law (Latin: Juris Canonici Doctor; J.C.D.) is the doctoral level terminal degree in canon law. ... Some universities, such as the University of Oxford, award Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degrees instead of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degrees. ... The Doctor of Education degree (Ed. ... A Doctor of Engineering is a university academic degree. ... The Doctor of Information Technology (DIT) is a research-oriented professional doctoral degree offered by some Australian universities (see below). ... Legum Doctor (English: Doctor of Laws; abbreviated to LL.D.) In the UK, Australia and New Zealand, the LL.D. is a higher doctorate usually awarded on the basis of exceptionally insightful and distinctive publications, containing significant and original contributions to the science or study of law. ... In 2005, Georgetown University became the first institution to offer a doctorate in liberal studies. ... The Doctor of Ministry degree is a professional doctorate in some area of applied theology, such as missions, evangelism, church growth, homiletics, or spiritual formation. ... The Doctor of Modern Languages degree (D.M.L.), like other doctorates, is an academic degree of the highest level. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Doctor of Musical Arts degree (D.M.A., or A.Mus. ... A Doctor of Science in Nursing (DSN) is an advanced-level quaternary education degree for Registered Nurses. ... The Doctor of Project Management (DPM) is a research-oriented professional doctoral degree offered by some Australian universities. ... The Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) is the terminal professional degree in the field of government and non-profit management. ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... The Doctor of Sacred Theology (S.T.D. = Sacrae Theologiae Doctor) is the final degree in the Pontifical University System of the Roman Catholic Church. ... D.Sc. ... The Doctor of Social Work (D.S.W. or Ph. ... Doctor of Laws (Latin: Legum Doctor, LL.D) is a doctorate-level academic degree in law. ... Doctor of Theology (in Latin Theologiae Doctor) is a terminal academic degree in theology. ...

Professional Doctorates (also called First Professional Degrees)

• Doctor of Acupuncture & Oriental Medicine (D.A.O.M.)
• Doctor of Audiology (Au. D.)
• Doctor of Chiropractic (D.C.)
• Doctor of Dental Surgery (D.D.S.)
• Doctor of Human Sexuality (D.H.S.)
• Juris Doctor/Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.)
• Doctor Liberalium Artium (D.L.A.)
• Doctor of Management (D.M.) (For example, in Organizational Leadership
• Doctor of Medicine/Medicinæ Doctor (M.D.)
• Doctor of Physical Therapy (D.P.T.)
• Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.)
• Doctor of Pharmacy (Pharm. D.)
• Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.)
• Doctor of Professional Studies (DProf or D.P.S.)
• Doctor of Dental Medicine (D.M.D.)
• Doctor of Nursing Practice (D.N.P.)
• Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (D.V.M.)
• Doctor of Naturopathic Medicine (N.D. or less commonly D.N.M.) / Doctor of Naturopathy (N.D.) -- N.D. can also stand for the licensed professional title of Naturopathic Doctor (N.D.) conferred by licensing bodies.
• Doctor of Natural Medicine (D.N.M.)
• Doctor of Psychology (Psy. D.)
• Doctor of Clinical Psychology (DCP)
• Doctor of Optometry/Optometry Doctor (O.D.)
• Doctor of Occupational Therapy (D.O.T.)

The Doctor of Acupuncture & Oriental Medicine (D.A.O.M.) is the highest degree awarded to practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) or other acupuncture traditions in the US. Categories: | ... The Doctorate of Audiology (Au. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS) suffix denotes one of two common professional doctorates in the United States for dentists, the other being Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD). ... Juris Doctor (Latin for Teacher of Law) or J.D. is a degree in law offered by universities in a number of countries. ... The Doctor Liberalium Artium degree (D.L.A. or Doctor of Liberal Arts), like other doctorates, is an academic degree of the highest level. ... Doctor of Medicine (M.D., from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor) is an academic degree. ... The Doctor of Physical Therapy (DPT) is a postbaccaluareate degree conferred upon successful completion of a doctoral level professional (entry-level) or postprofessional education program. ... Osteopathic medicine (formerly known as osteopathy) is [1] Outside the United States, osteopathic medicine is often used interchangeably with osteopathy. Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine, or D.O.s, apply the philosophy of treating the whole person (a holistic approach) to the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of illness, disease and injury... // In the United States the Pharm. ... A podiatrist (US English), or chiropodist (British English), is a podiatry professional, that is a person devoted to the study and treatment of disorders of the foot and ankle. ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... The DMD suffix denotes one of two common doctorates in the United States for dentists, the other being Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS). ... A Doctor of Science in Nursing (DSN) is an advanced-level quaternary education degree for Registered Nurses. ... A veterinary surgeon removes stitches from a cats face following minor surgery on an absess. ... Naturopathic medicine is the practice of attempting to improve the health of patients through the application of natural remedies. ... The Doctor of Psychology (Psy. ... Optometry is the health care profession concerned with examination, diagnosis, and treatment of the eyes and related structures, and with determination and correction of vision problems using lenses and other optical aids [1]. An optometrist (Greek: optos meaning seen or visible and metria meaning measurement) is an eye care professional...

Higher Doctorates in the United Kingdom, Ireland and the Commonwealth

The notion of doctorates that are higher than the Ph.D. is one that is rare in the United States and Canada, but more established in the UK, Ireland and Commonwealth nations (other than Canada), where the Ph.D. is a relatively recent (early 20th century) introduction. Some universities (Oxford and Cambridge, for example) maintain a notional ranking of the seniority of different doctorates; typically Doctors of Divinity rank above all other doctors.

Higher doctorates include:

• Doctor of Divinity/Divinitatis Doctor (D.D.)
• Doctor of Canon Law (in the UK this degree did not survive the Protestant reformation)
• Doctor of Civil Law (D.C.L.)
• Doctor of Laws/Legum Doctor (LL.D.)
• Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D., J.S.D.)
• Doctor of Medicine/Medicinæ Doctor (D.M. or M.D.)
• Doctor of Letters/Litterarum Doctor (D.Litt. or Litt. D.)
• Doctor of Science/Scientiæ Doctor (D.Sc. or Sc. D.)
• Doctor of Music/Musicæ Doctor (D.Mus. or Mus. D.)
• Doctor of Technology (D.Tech.)
• Doctor of Governance (DGov)
• Doctor of the University (D.Univ.; usually honorary)

The degree of Doctor of Engineering (D.Eng. or Eng. D.) usually indicates a qualification comparable to a Ph.D. Doctor of Divinity (D.D., Divinitatis Doctor in Latin) is an academic degree. ... Doctor of Canon Law (Latin: Juris Canonici Doctor; J.C.D.) is the doctoral level terminal degree in canon law. ... The Protestant Reformation was a movement in the 16th century to reform the Catholic Church in Western Europe. ... Some universities, such as the University of Oxford, award Doctor of Civil Law (DCL) degrees instead of Doctor of Laws (LL.D.) degrees. ... Doctor of Laws (Latin: Legum Doctor, LL.D) is a doctorate-level academic degree in law. ... Legum Doctor (English: Doctor of Laws; abbreviated to LL.D.) In the UK, Australia and New Zealand, the LL.D. is a higher doctorate usually awarded on the basis of exceptionally insightful and distinctive publications, containing significant and original contributions to the science or study of law. ... Doctor of Medicine (M.D., from the Latin Medicinæ Doctor) is an academic degree. ... A Doctor of Letters is a university academic degree. ... D.Sc. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Doctor of Technology (D.Tech. ... A Doctor of Governance (DGov) is an unusual doctoral degree, offered largely at universities in Ireland. ... An Honorary Degree (Latin: honoris causa ad gradum) is an extra-ordinary academic degree awarded to an individual as a decoration, rather than as the result of matriculating and studying for several years. ... A Doctor of Engineering is a university academic degree. ...

Doctorates in The Netherlands

The traditional academic system of The Netherlands provides four basic academic diplomas and degrees: propaedeuse, candidate, doctorandus (drs.), engineer (ir.) and doctor (dr.). After successful completion of the first year of University, the student is awarded the propaedeutic diploma. The candidate degree is usually attained after three years of academic study, after which the student is allowed to begin work on his doctorandus' thesis. The successful completion of this thesis allows one to use the doctorandus title, attainment of which means one's initial studies are finished. Those who choose to, and are allowed to, perform extensive research and write a doctoral dissertation (usually over the course of four years). Upon completion, a doctor's degree is awarded. This is the highest academic degree one can attain. In addition to these 'general' degrees, a number of specific titles for certain subjects are available, each of which is equivalent to the doctorandus degree: for law: meester ('master') (mr.), and for engineering: ingenieur ('engineer')(ir.). Doctorandus (Latin: he who should become a doctor) is a Dutch academic title according to the pre-bachelor-master system. ...

In the last few years, the Dutch have incorporated the Anglo-Saxon system of academic degrees into their own. The candidate's degree is replaced by the bachelor's degree, the doctorandus' by the master's degree. This development has led the The Eindhoven University of Technology to award a Professional Doctorate degree in Engineering (PDEng), which replaced a post-master degree. Professional Doctorates are not commonly awarded by Dutch Universities. The Eindhoven University of Technology (in Dutch: Technische Universiteit Eindhoven or TU/e, and formerly Technische Hogeschool Eindhoven or THE) is a technical university located in Eindhoven, the Netherlands. ...

Higher Doctorates in Scandinavia

In Denmark there are five levels of degrees: Bachelor's, Candidate's (may be compared to Master), Magister (similar to an MPhil in the United Kingdom system; a degree by research, higher than a Master's but lower than a Ph. D.), Ph. D., and finally Dr., which is the higher doctorate. A masters degree is an academic degree usually awarded for completion of a postgraduate course of one or two years in duration. ...

• dr. med. - Medicine
• dr. jur. - Law
• dr. theol. - Theology
• dr. phil. - Philosophy (humanities)
• dr. polit. - Economics
• dr. scient. - Science (natural sciences)
• dr. techn. - Technology

These degrees (and in addition dr. ing.) were also used in Norway, which traditionally used the same system as Denmark. Besides dr. philos, which is awarded to people who don't follow an organized degree program, new candidates are no longer awarded these degrees, but are instead awarded a Ph. D. The new Ph. D. degree was introduced in the early 2000s. The Ph. D. in Norway is not a lower-level research doctorate.

The PhD is in Denmark known as the "lower doctorate" or the "small doctorate".

Doctorates in Germany

In Germany, all doctorates bear the same level of merit. There are no first-degree doctorates as lawyers; medical doctors do not necessarily hold a doctorate, although it is much easier for medical students to earn the degree (it is completed in about one year within their course) than for those studying other disciplines (where the doctorate often takes more than a year to complete). Apart from that, Germany uses different titles, which are written in front of the first name for addresses (within texts, the abbreviation "Dr." is common) and accompany the person's name (unlike in German-speaking Switzerland). This is a list of the types of doctorates encountered most often. For each title the subject is indicated in which it is mostly awarded. (There are exceptions from this, depending on the rules and traditions of the degree-awarding university.). Some believe that in Germany the title "Dr." is part of a person's name and that these people have a right to be addressed with the title. This misunderstanding comes forth from the fact that "Dr." is the only academic degree that can be mentioned in one's identity card. But this does not make it part of the name. In Southern Germany and Austria it is more common to address somebody with the title than in the North. It can also depend on the occasion and of course of the individual person whether to use the title or not. The proper expression is "Herr Doktor" (male) or "Frau Doktor" (female). Doktors may not address other Doktors with the title, because that would give the impression that one were preferring, or even insisting on, being called Doktor oneself, which could be seen as slightly pathetic. When officially writing to a person with several titles, it would be proper to begin with the "highest" title and eventually name several Dr.-titles, e.g. Prof. Dr. Dr. Schmidt. The actual addressing begins with Sehr geehrter Herr Professor / Sehr geehrte Frau Professor. There are different opinions whether dropping the Herr or Frau in such occasions.

• Dr. h.c. (Doctor honoris causa - honorary doctor), but: Dr.-Ing. E.h. (German: ehrenhalber)
• Dr.-Ing. (Doktor Ingenieur - Engineering, seldom computer science)
• Dr. iur. (Doctor iuris - Law), also: Dr. jur. although this is not the correct spelling
• Dr. iur. utr. (Doctor iuris utriusque - both Laws, "Doktor beider Rechte" (Deutsches und Römisches Recht)
• Dr. med. (Doctor medicinae - Medicine), also Dr. med. dent. for dentists and Dr. med. vet. for veterinarians
• Dr. oec. pub. (Doctor oconomiae publicae - business administration ("Betriebswirtschaftslehre") or macro- and micro-economics ("Volkswirtschaftslehre")
• Dr. theol. (Doctor theologiae - Theology)
• Dr. phil. (Doctor philosophiae - most of the humanities)
• Dr. rer. medic. (Doctor rerum medicarum - "Doktor der Medizinwissenschaften")
• Dr. rer. nat. (Doctor rerum naturalium - literally "Doctor of natural things" - all natural sciences, mathematics and computer science)
• Dr. rer. pol. (Doctor rerum politicarum - Economics, Business Administration, Sociology and related subjects)

Upon the completion of a second dissertation or Habilitationsschrift a senior doctorate (dr.habil.) is awarded. This senior doctorate is known as the Habilitation. It is not a degree, but an additional qualification. This or an equivalent professional experience is - traditionally - the necessary prerequisite for a position of Privatdozent or Professor. Now, with the BA/MA-modell and the Juniorprofessoren to be introduced, this has already changed partially. Engineering is the application of scientific or mathematical principles with due reference to economics, society and environment to develop solutions to technical problems, creating products, facilities, and structures that are useful to people. ... Computer science, or computing science, is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems. ... // Balancing scales are symbolic of how law mediates peoples interests For other senses of this word, see Law (disambiguation). ... A doctorate is an academic degree of the highest level. ... This article is about the field and science of medical practice and health care. ... Master of Business Administration (MBA) is a tertiary degree in business management. ... Face-to-face trading interactions among on the New York Stock Exchange trading floor Economics, as a social science, studies the production, distribution, and consumption of resources. ... Doctor of Theology (in Latin Theologiae Doctor) is a terminal academic degree in theology. ... Theology (Greek θεος, theos, God, + λογος, logos, word or reason) means reasoned discourse concerning religion, spirituality and God. ... The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view. ... The term natural science as the way in which different fields of study are defined is determined as much by historical convention as by the present day meaning of the words. ... Euclid, Greek mathematician, 3rd century BC, known today as the father of geometry; shown here in a detail of The School of Athens by Raphael. ... Computer science, or computing science, is the study of the theoretical foundations of information and computation and their implementation and application in computer systems. ... Face-to-face trading interactions among on the New York Stock Exchange trading floor Economics, as a social science, studies the production, distribution, and consumption of resources. ... Master of Business Administration (MBA) is a tertiary degree in business management. ... Social interactions and their consequences are the subject of sociology. ... Habilitation is a term used within the university system in France, Germany, Austria, and some other European countries such as the German-speaking part of Switzerland, in Bulgaria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, and countries of former Soviet Union, such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kirgizstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Uzbekistan... A professor giving a lecture The meaning of the word professor (Latin: one who claims publicly to be an expert) varies. ...

Doctorates in Russia

The USSR and many post-Soviet countries, including Russian Federation, have two-stage research doctorate, generally similar to the doctorate system in Germany. The first stage is named "Kandidat of <...> Sciences" (for instance, Kandidat of Medical Sciences, of Chemical Sciences, of Philological Sciences, and so on). The Kandidat of Sciences degree is usually recognised as equivalent of Ph. D. and requires at least (and typically more than) three years of post-graduate studies which finished by defence of a thesis. Additionally, a seeker of the degree has to pass three examinations (so-called "Kandidate's minimum"): in his/her special field, in one foreign language, and in philosophy. Kandidat (Russian: кандидат) or Candidate of Science (кандидат наук) is a holder of a first post-graduate scientific degree in the former USSR since 1934 and in some post-Soviet states, awarded for a dissertation (the Doctor of Science is one level higher than the Kandidat). ... Kandidat (Russian: кандидат) or Candidate of Science (кандидат наук) is a holder of a first post-graduate scientific degree in the former USSR since 1934 and in some post-Soviet states, awarded for a dissertation (the Doctor of Science is one level higher than the Kandidat). ...

The second stage, "Doctor of <...> Sciences", is equal to Habilitation in Germany. It requires many years of research experience and writing of a second dissertation. A position of Professor can be held only by a Doctor of Sciences. Habilitation is a term used within the university system in France, Germany, Austria, and some other European countries such as the German-speaking part of Switzerland, in Bulgaria, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, and countries of former Soviet Union, such as Armenia, Azerbaijan, Moldova, Kirgizstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Uzbekistan...

The degrees of Kandidat and Doctor of Sciences are only awarded by the special governmental agency (Higher Attestation Commission); a university or a scientific institute where the thesis was defended can only recommend to award a seeker the sought degree. Higher Attestation Commission (Russian: , abbreviated Russian: , VAK) is a name of a national government agency in Russia and some other post-Soviet states that oversees awarding of advanced academic degrees. ...

Doctorates in the Czech Republic and Slovakia

First-degree doctorates (written before the name as "JuDr.Smith" or usually abbreviated "Dr.Smith")

• Doctor of medicine (Medicinæ universæ doctor - MUDr.)
• Doctor of dental medicine (Medicinæ dentalis doctor - MDDr., only in the Czech Republic)
• Doctor of veterinary medicine (Medicinæ veterinariæ doctor - MVDr.)
• Doctor of pharmacy (Pharmaciæ doctor - PharmDr.)
• Doctor of philosophy (Philosophiæ doctor - PhDr.)
• Doctor of natural sciences (Rerum naturalium doctor - RNDr.)
• Doctor of laws (Juris utrisque doctor - JUDr.)
• Doctor of paedeutics (Paedagogiæ doctor - PaedDr., no longer used in the Czech Republic)
• Doctor of theology (Theologiæ doctor - ThDr.)
• Doctor of economy (Rerum commercialum doctor - RCDr., no longer used)
• Doctor of social sciences (Rerum societarum doctor - RSDr., deprecated - used by communist regime)

Higher doctorates (written after the name, "Mr.Smith, PhD." or "Mr.Smith, Phd.")

• Candidate of sciences (Candidatus scientarum - CSc., now being replaced by common PhD.)
• Doctor of sciences (Doctor scientarum - DrSc.)
• Doctor of arts (Artes doctor - ArtD.)

Doctorates in Poland

All doctorates in Poland are of the same level, there are no first or second-level doctorates. The award of the title of "doktor" is usually preceded by 4-5 years of doctoral study (a post-graduate study offered at most universities, with or without an obligation to teach some classes), but can also be obtained without a formal participation in the doctoral studies.

To become a doctor one needs to write a dissertation (varying in length), which then must be accepted by a panel of professors during a so-called "defence of the dissertation (obrona pracy doktorskiej)". There are several other requirements, like passing an exam in a foreign language and philosophy or economics (similar to the Russian system).

A prospective doctor must have also published some works (articles, books) beforehand, otherwise s/he would not be allowed to start the doctoral proceedings (przewód doktorski).

The title of a doctor is abbreviated as dr (without a full stop) before the surname of a person, e.g. dr Kowalski.

"Doctor" is also a common form of addressing a physician, but that does not indicate that the person actually holds a doctoral degree. Doctors of medicine have the abbreviation dr n. med. (doctor of medical studies) before or after their surname.

The title of dr inż. (doctor of engineering) is the only other specific doctoral titles. All other doctorates have no indications of their field.

Doctorates in Portugal

• Doutor (Doctor)

Note: In Portugal and in the African Countries of Portuguese Official Language it is common to use the title "Dr." (supposedly the abbreviation of "Doutor") in reference to people with "Licenciatura" degrees (a "Licenciatura" is something between a Bachelor and a Master Degree in most countries, and currently (Jan 2006) represents 4 or 5 years of graduate studies; except in the following Licenciaturas: Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and Dental Medicine, which are 6-year long and the degree is equivalent to DPharm, DM/MD, etc. After the Bologna Process reform takes place in Portugal, it will have 3 to 4 years and be equivalent to any Bachelor degree in the E.U. countries that adopt this process). Some professionals have, however, different titles. For example: "Eng." (Engenheiro, Engineer), "Arq." (Arquitecto, Architect). The term "Doctor" in Portugal is used for those with a PhD and, instead of the title "Dr.", use "Doutor" (the extended form) or "Professor Doutor" (because, usually, PhD's are university professors). The purpose of the Bologna process is to create the European higher education area by harmonising academic degree standards and quality assurance standards throughout Europe for each faculty and its development. ...

Doctorates in Finland

Finland requires 45 study credits of courses and a written thesis including 3 to 7 journal articles for a doctorate degree.

Doctorates in Brazil

Doctoral programs are available in most Brazilian public universities. The candidate is normally required to have received first a Master's degree in a related field prior to getting a Doctor's degree. In a few cases however, some institutions may admit candidates who do not hold a Master's degree, based on their individual academic merit. A second and a third foreign language are also common requirements for those wishing to enroll in a doctoral program in Brazil. The process of admission varies by institution. Some require candidates to take several tests prior to admission to the program and others base admissions on a research proposal application and interview. However, in this second instance, the applicant must have a supervisor who will coordinate his or her research during the doctorate.

The requirements for the Doctor's degree usually include satisfactory performance in a minimum number of advanced graduate courses, passing an oral qualifying exam, and submitting a doctoral thesis that must represent an original and relevant contribution to existing knowledge in the field of study to which the thesis topic is related. The thesis is examined in a final public oral exam administered by a panel of at least five faculty members, two of whom must be necessarily external examiners. After completion of the program, which normally lasts from 3 to 6 years, the candidate is commonly awarded the degree of Doutor (Doctor) followed by the name of the main area of specialization in which his/her research was conducted, e.g. Doutor em Direito (Doctor of Laws), Doutor em Ciências da Computação (Doctor of Computer Sciences), Doutor em Filosofia(Doctor of Philosophy), Doutor em Economia (Doctor of Economics), Doutor em Engenharia (Doctor of Engineering), Doutor em Medicina (Doctor of Medicine), and so on. The generic title of Doutor em Ciências (Doctor of Sciences) is normally used to refer collectively to doctorates in the natural sciences (i.e. Physics, Chemistry, Biological and Life Sciences, etc.)

All graduate programs in Brazilian public universities are free as public universities are not allowed under the Brazilian constitution to charge tuition fees from the students. On top of that, most gifted graduate students are also supported by individual or institutional scholarships granted by federal government agencies like CNPq and CAPES, or by the various FAP's at the state level (especially FAPESP in the state of São Paulo). Competition for graduate financial aid is very intense though and most scholarships support at most 2 years of Master's studies and 4 years of doctoral studies. The normal monthly stipend for doctoral students in Brazil is between 500 and 1000 USD. São Paulo is a state in Brazil. ...

See also

• Doctor of Philosophy
• Doctor of Science
• Bachelor's degree
• Master's degree
• C.Phil. (ABD)
• Engineer's degree
• Bologna process - EU harmonisation
• Degrees of the University of Oxford
• British degree abbreviations
• Thesis committee
• EURODOC - the European Council of doctoral candidates and junior researchers.
• Dottorato di ricerca (doctorate in Italy)

Ph. ... D.Sc. ... A bachelors degree (Artium Baccalaureus, A.B. or B.A.) is usually an undergraduate academic degree awarded for a course or major that generally lasts for three, four, or in some cases and countries, five or six years. ... A masters degree is an academic degree usually awarded for completion of a postgraduate (or graduate) course of one to three years in duration. ... C.Phil. ... The term engineers degree may be used to represent a graduate academic degree intermediate in rank between a masters degree and a doctorate (U.S.), or it may also represent a higher (in total, 6-year) degree equivalent to or slightly more extensive than a masters degree... The purpose of the Bologna process is to create the European higher education area by harmonising academic degree standards and quality assurance standards throughout Europe for each faculty and its development. ... This article concerns the Degrees of Oxford University. ... Abbreviations are normally used to specify a degree, rather than spelling out the name in full, such as in reference books like Whos Who or on business cards. ... A thesis committee (or, at some universities, specifically for the doctorate, a dissertation committee) is a committee that evaluates a graduate students thesis. ... Created in 2001 and legally established in 2005 in Brussels, Eurodoc (www. ... In Italy, the dottorato di ricerca (doctorate of research) is the highest academic degree, unofficially considered the equivalent of a Ph. ...