This box: view • talk • edit History of the Netherlands
Ancient times
Germanic tribes
Roman Era
Migration Period
The Medieval Low Countries
Frankish Realm / The Franks
Holy Roman Empire
Burgundian Netherlands
Seventeen Provinces
Spanish Netherlands
Rise and Fall of the Dutch Republic
Eighty Years' War
United Provinces
The Golden Age
The Batavian revolution
From Republic to Monarchy
Batavian Republic
Kingdom of Holland
First French Empire
United Kingdom of the Netherlands
The Netherlands in Modern Times
Modern History of the Netherlands
Netherlands in World War II
Luctor et Emergo
The Dutch Fight against Water
The Miscellaneous Netherlands
Military history of the Netherlands
History of the Dutch language
Dutch literature
Dutch influence on military terms
Dutch inventions and discoveries

Rembrandt The Nightwatch (1642)

The Golden Age (1584-1702) was a period in Dutch history, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Netherlands. ... Thor, Germanic thunder god. ... This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... Human migration denotes any movement of groups of people from one locality to another, rather than of individual wanderers. ... The Frankish Empire was the territory of the Franks, from the 5th to the 10th centuries, from 481 ruled by Clovis I of the Merovingian Dynasty, the first king of all the Franks. ... For other uses, see Franks (disambiguation). ... The extent of the Holy Roman Empire in c. ... In the history of the Low Countries, the Burgundian Netherlands refers to the period when the dukes of Burgundy ruled the area, as well as Luxembourg and northern France from 1384 to 1477. ... Flag of the Seventeen Provinces The Seventeen Provinces were a personal union of states in the Low Countries in the 15th century and 16th century, roughly covering the current Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, a good part of the North of France (Artois, Nord) and a small part of the West of... This article or section should be merged with Seventeen Provinces The Spanish Netherlands was a portion of the Low Countries controlled by Spain from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. ... Combatants Dutch rebels Spanish Empire The Eighty Years War, or Dutch Revolt (1568[1]–1648), was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Netherlands against the Spanish (Habsburg) Empire. ... Map of Dutch Republic by Joannes Janssonius United Netherlands redirects here. ... The term Batavian revolution refers to the political, social and cultural turmoil that marked the end of the Dutch Republic at the end of the 18th century. ... From 1795 to 1806, the Batavian Republic (Bataafse Republiek in Dutch) designated the Netherlands as a republic modeled after the French Republic, to which it was a vassal state. ... The Kingdom of Holland 1806 - 1810 (Koninkrijk Holland in Dutch, Royaume dHollande in French) was set up by Napoleon Bonaparte as a puppet kingdom for his third brother, Louis Bonaparte, in order to better control the Netherlands. ... Map of the First French Empire in 1811, with the Empire in dark blue and sattelite states in light blue Capital Paris Language(s) French Government Monarchy Emperor  - 1804-1814/1815 Napoleon I Napoleon II Legislature Parliament  - Upper house Senate  - Lower house Corps législatif History  - French Consulate  - Established 18... Map of the kingdom United Kingdom of the Netherlands (1815 - 1830) (1839) (Dutch: Verenigd Koninkrijk der Nederlanden, French: Royaume-Uni des Pays-Bas and German: Vereinigte Königreich der Niederlande) were the unofficial names used to refer to a new unified European state created during the Congress of Vienna in... Preamble to the War During the period between the first and second World Wars the Netherlands, like other countries, suffered from the effects of the Great Depression after the Stock market crash of 1929. ... Blue:Areas below sealevel or vunerable to flooding, either by sea or by rivers. ... The Dutch- speaking people have a long history, the Netherlands as a nation-state dates from 1568. ... The history of the Dutch language as separate from common West Germanic begins in the 6th century AD with the High German consonant shift and growing social and political power of the Franks. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Historically, many Dutch military terms have been influential and adopted by many other languages all over the world. ... The Dutch people have a history and tradition in inventing and discovery, Dutch scientists and engineers have made a remarkable contribute to human progress as a whole. ... Download high resolution version (750x625, 38 KB)Image from the official Rijksmuseum website. ... Download high resolution version (750x625, 38 KB)Image from the official Rijksmuseum website. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Part of a scientific laboratory at the University of Cologne. ... The Bath, a painting by Mary Cassatt (1844-1926). ...

This article focuses on social and cultural history. For political events, see History of the Netherlands and Eighty Years' War (1568-1648). For more information about notable Dutch persons in the Golden Age, see Dutch Golden Age, List of People. This article or section is not written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia article. ... Combatants Dutch rebels Spanish Empire The Eighty Years War, or Dutch Revolt (1568[1]–1648), was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Netherlands against the Spanish (Habsburg) Empire. ... Events March 23 - Peace of Longjumeau ends the Second War of Religion in France. ... 1648 (MDCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... The Dutch Golden Age was a period in Dutch history, roughly equivalent to the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science and art were top ranking in the world. ...

[edit] Causes of the Golden Age

In 1568 the Seventeen that signed the Union of Utrecht started a rebellion against Philip II: the Eighty Years' War. Before the Low Countries could be completely reconquered, war between England and Spain broke out, forcing the Spanish troops under Philip II to halt their advances. Meanwhile, Philip's Spanish troops had conquered the important trading cities of Bruges and Ghent. Antwerp, which was then arguably the most important port in the world, had to be conquered. On August 17, 1585, Antwerp fell. This ended the Eighty Years' War for the (from now on) Southern Netherlands. The United Provinces (the Netherlands proper) fought on until 1648 – the Peace of Westphalia. Events March 23 - Peace of Longjumeau ends the Second War of Religion in France. ... Combatants Dutch rebels Spanish Empire The Eighty Years War, or Dutch Revolt (1568[1]–1648), was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Netherlands against the Spanish (Habsburg) Empire. ... Motto (French) God and my right Anthem God Save the King (Queen) England() – on the European continent() – in the United Kingdom() Capital (and largest city) London (de facto) Official languages English (de facto) Government Constitutional monarchy  -  Queen Queen Elizabeth II  -  Prime Minister Tony Blair MP Unification  -  by Athelstan 967  Area... 1585 was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. ... The Southern Netherlands were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain (Spanish Netherlands, 1579-1713), Austria (Austrian Netherlands, 1713-1794) and France (1794-1815). ... Map of Dutch Republic by Joannes Janssonius United Netherlands redirects here. ... 1648 (MDCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Ratification of the Treaty of Münster The Peace of Westphalia refers to the pair of treaties (the Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück) signed in October and May 1648 which ended both the Thirty Years War and the Eighty Years War. ...

The definite loss of the Southern Netherlands caused the rich Calvinist merchants of these cities to flee to the north. Many migrated to Amsterdam, which was at the time a tiny port, but was quickly transformed into one of the most important ports in the world in the 17th century. The exodus can be described as 'creating a new Antwerp'. This mass immigration from Flanders and Brabant (especially Antwerp) was an important driving force behind the Dutch Golden Age. The Southern Netherlands were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain (Spanish Netherlands, 1579-1713), Austria (Austrian Netherlands, 1713-1794) and France (1794-1815). ... Nickname: Motto: Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig (Valiant, Determined, Compassionate) Location of Amsterdam Coordinates: Country Netherlands Province North Holland Government  - Mayor Simon McAndrew (PvdA)  - Aldermen Lodewijk Asscher Hennah Buyne Carolien Gehrels Tjeerd Herrema Maarten van Poelgeest Marijke Vos  - Secretary Erik Gerritsen Area [1][2]  - City 219 km²  (84. ...

In addition to the mass immigration from the Southern Netherlands, there was also a massive influx of refugees fleeing from religious persecution, particularly Sephardi Jews from Portugal and Spain and, later, Huguenots from France. Languages Ladino also Judæo-Portuguese, Catalanic, and Shuadit Religions Judaism Related ethnic groups Ashkenazi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, and other Jewish ethnic divisions Sephardi Jews (Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Tiberian ; plural ספרדים, Standard Tiberian ) are a subgroup of Jews originating in the Iberian Peninsula, usually defined in contrast to Ashkenazi Jews; frequently used... In the 16th and 17th centuries, the name Huguenot was applied to a member of the Protestant Reformed Church of France, historically known as the French Calvinists. ...

Several other factors also contributed to the flowering of trade, industry, the arts and the sciences during this period. A necessary condition was the supply of cheap energy from windmills and from peat, easily transported by canal to the cities. The invention of the sawmill enabled the construction of a massive fleet of ships for worldwide trading and to defend the republic's economic interests by military means. Peat in Lewis, Scotland Peat is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation matter. ... A sawmill is a facility where logs are cut into boards. ...

[edit] Wealth

During a large part of the 17th century the Dutch, traditionally able seafarers and keen mapmakers, dominated world trade, a position which before had been occupied by the Portuguese and Spaniards, and which later would be lost to England after a long competition that culminated in several Anglo-Dutch Wars (fought mainly at sea) — though these weren't the only cause of Dutch decline. The painting Dutch attack on the Medway, June 1667 by Pieter Cornelisz van Soest, painted c. ...

In 1602 the Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie or VOC) was founded. It was the first-ever multinational corporation. This company received a Dutch monopoly on Asian trade and would keep this for two centuries. It became the world's largest commercial enterprise of the 17th century. Spices were imported in bulk and brought huge profits, due to the efforts and risks involved and seemingly insatiable demand. In 1609 the Amsterdam exchange bank was founded, a century before its English counterpart. This page is about the year. ... Dutch colonial possessions, with the Dutch East India Company possessions marked in a paler green, surrounding the Indian Ocean plus Saint Helena in the mid-Atlantic. ... A multinational corporation (MNC) is a corporation or enterprise that manages production establishments or delivers services in at least two countries. ... // Events April 4 – King of Spain signs an edit of expulsion of all moriscos from Spain April 9 – Spain recognizes Dutch independence May 23 - Official ratification of the Second Charter of Virginia. ...

A part of the wealth of the Dutch came through slavery. In 1619 The Netherlands began the slave trade between Africa and America, by 1650 becoming the pre-eminent slave trading country in Europe, a position overtaken by Britain around 1700. The port city of Amsterdam was the European capital of slavery, helping to manage the slave trade also of neighbouring nations and with up to 10,000 slaving vessels associated with the port. Slave redirects here. ... The Atlantic slave trade, started by the Portuguese[1], but soon dominated by the English, was the sale and exploitation of African slaves by Europeans that occurred in and around the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th century to the 19th century. ... Nickname: Motto: Heldhaftig, Vastberaden, Barmhartig (Valiant, Determined, Compassionate) Location of Amsterdam Coordinates: Country Netherlands Province North Holland Government  - Mayor Simon McAndrew (PvdA)  - Aldermen Lodewijk Asscher Hennah Buyne Carolien Gehrels Tjeerd Herrema Maarten van Poelgeest Marijke Vos  - Secretary Erik Gerritsen Area [1][2]  - City 219 km²  (84. ...

The Dutch also dominated trade between European countries. The Low Countries were favorably positioned on a crossing of east-west and north-south trade routes and connected to a large German hinterland through the Rhine river. Dutch traders shipped wine from France and Portugal to the Baltic lands and returned with grain destined for countries around the Mediterranean Sea. This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ... The Rhine (Dutch: ; French: ; German: ; Italian: ; Romansh: ) is one of the longest and most important rivers in Europe at 1,320 kilometres (820 miles), with an average discharge of more than 2,000 cubic meters per second. ... Population density in the wider Baltic region. ... Composite satellite image of the Mediterranean Sea. ...

National industries expanded as well. Shipyards and sugar refineries are prime examples. As more and more land was utilized, partially through transforming lakes into polders, local grain production and dairy farming soared. Satellite image of Noordoostpolder, Netherlands (595. ...

The flourishing Dutch trade produced a large, wealthy merchant class. The new prosperity brought more attention to and sponsorship for visual arts, literature and science. The Mona Lisa is one of the most recognizable artistic paintings in the Western world. ... Old book bindings at the Merton College library. ...

[edit] Tolerance

The Dutch have been internationally oriented for a very long time. This may at least partially be attributed to their dependence on international commerce and good foreign relations. This national trait may in return have promoted another one, namely tolerance towards minority views and interests.

It can also be said that the Reformation had contributed to this mild attitude towards dissenters. Reformists stressed the importance of each person's individual conscience in determining how to interpret the Bible, rejecting central dogmas and a fixed clerical hierarchy to enforce them. The Protestant Reformation was a movement which began in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church, but ended in division and the establishment of new institutions, most importantly Lutheranism, Reformed churches, and Anabaptists. ... This Gutenberg Bible is displayed by the United States Library of Congress. ...

This almost proverbial Dutch tolerance (rather strong today, in the 17th century up to a limit, see also section religion below) made it easy for foreigners to travel or even immigrate (often as refugees) to the Netherlands. Thus some Dutch cities became to some extent a "melting pot". Jews from Portugal and Belgium fled the zealots of the Spanish inquisition and philosophers like Baruch Spinoza and René Descartes published their most famous works first in the Netherlands. The Spanish Inquisition was an organization which conducted religious trials, primarily between 1480 to 1530, set up by the Spanish Monarchy with the forced consent of Pope Sixtus IV and serving the purpose to consolidate power in Spain. ... Benedictus de Spinoza or Baruch de Spinoza (Hebrew: ברוך שפינוזה) (lived November 24, 1632 – February 21, 1677) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin. ... René Descartes (March 31, 1596 – February 11, 1650), also known as Renatus Cartesius (latinized form), was a highly influential French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer. ...

[edit] National consciousness

The outcome of the revolt against Spain, better known as the Eighty Years' War (1568-1648), that had been fought over religious freedom and economical and political independence, and ended in total independence of the reformist northern provinces (see also Dutch Republic), almost certainly would have boosted national morale. Already in 1609 much of this was accomplished, when a temporary truce was signed with Spain, which would last for 12 years. Combatants Dutch rebels Spanish Empire The Eighty Years War, or Dutch Revolt (1568[1]–1648), was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Netherlands against the Spanish (Habsburg) Empire. ... Events March 23 - Peace of Longjumeau ends the Second War of Religion in France. ... 1648 (MDCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Map of Dutch Republic by Joannes Janssonius United Netherlands redirects here. ... // Events April 4 – King of Spain signs an edit of expulsion of all moriscos from Spain April 9 – Spain recognizes Dutch independence May 23 - Official ratification of the Second Charter of Virginia. ...

Just like in the French Revolution, to name just one other example, political freedom spilled over into other areas, creating an openness to new cultural and scientific ideas as well. The French Revolution (1789–1815) was a period of political and social upheaval in the political history of France and Europe as a whole, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on...

[edit] Social structure

Canal with patrician houses - Leiden

In the Netherlands the social status in the 17th century was largely determined by income. Social classes existed but in a new way. Aristocracy, or nobility, had sold out most of its privileges to cities, where merchants and their money were dominant. The clergy did not have much worldly influence either: the Roman Catholic Church had been more or less suppressed since the onset of the Eighty Years' War with Spain (1568–1648). The new Protestant movement was divided. This was different from neighbouring countries where social status was still largely determined by birth and would remain so until the French Revolution began in 1789. from Dutch WP (Oude_rijn_leiden_2003. ... Forms of government Part of the Politics series Politics Portal This box:      The term aristocracy refers to a form of government where power is hereditary, and split between a small number of families. ... Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given religion. ... The Roman Catholic Church or Catholic Church (see terminology below) is the Christian Church in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, currently Pope Benedict XVI. It traces its origins to the original Christian community founded by Jesus Christ and led by the Twelve Apostles, in particular Saint Peter. ... Combatants Dutch rebels Spanish Empire The Eighty Years War, or Dutch Revolt (1568[1]–1648), was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Netherlands against the Spanish (Habsburg) Empire. ... Events March 23 - Peace of Longjumeau ends the Second War of Religion in France. ... 1648 (MDCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... The French Revolution (1789–1815) was a period of political and social upheaval in the political history of France and Europe as a whole, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on...

This is not to say that aristocrats were without social status. To the contrary, it meant rather that wealthy merchants bought themselves into nobility by becoming landowners and acquiring a coat of arms and a seal. Also aristocrats mixed with members from other classes in order to be able to support themselves as they saw fit. To this end they married their daughters to wealthy merchants, became traders themselves or took up public or military office to earn a salary. Merchants also started to value public office as a means to greater economic power and prestige. Universities became career pathways to such a public office. Rich merchants and aristocrats sent their sons on a so-called Grand Tour ('Great journey') through Europe. Often accompanied by a private scholar, preferably a scientist himself, these young people visited universities in several European countries. This intermixing of patricians and aristocrats was most prominent in the second half of the century. Representation of a university class, 1350s. ... The interior of the Pantheon in the 18th century, painted by Giovanni Paolo Panini In the 18th century, the Grand Tour was a kind of education for wealthy British noblemen, wherein the primary educational value was exposure to the cultured artifacts of antiquity and the Renaissance as well as the... This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ...

Next to aristocrats and patricians came the affluent middle class, consisting of Protestant ministers, lawyers, physicians, small merchants and industrialists, and clerks of large state institutions.

Lower status was attributed to small shop owners, specialized workers and craftsmen, administrators, and farmers.

Below that stood skilled labourers, house attendants and other service personnel.

At the bottom of the pyramid were 'paupers', what Karl Marx later would call the proletariat: impoverished peasants, many of whom tried their luck in a city as a beggar or day labourer. Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818, Trier, Germany – March 14, 1883, London) was a German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary. ... The proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is proletarian. ...

Because of the importance of wealth in defining social status, divisions between classes were less sharply defined and social mobility was much greater than elsewhere. Calvinism, which preaches humility as an important virtue, also tended to diminish the importance of social differences. These tendencies have proved remarkably persistent: modern Dutch society, though much more secularized, is still by many considered to be remarkably egalitarian.

[edit] Religion

Calvinism was the predominant belief in the Low Countries. This does not imply that unity existed. The opposite seems true. In the beginning of the century bitter controversies between strict Calvinists and more permissive Protestants, known as Remonstrants, split the country. The Remonstrants denied predestination and championed freedom of conscience, while their more dogmatic adversaries (known as Contra-Remonstrants) gained a major victory at the Synod of Dordrecht (1618-19). In the end the sheer number of reformist branches may well have worked as an antidote to intolerance. Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... Predestination and foreordination are religious concepts, under which the relationship between the beginning of things and the destiny of things is discussed. ... The Synod of Dort met in the city of Dordrecht in 1618-1619, as a national assembly of the Dutch Reformed Church, to which were invited representatives from the Reformed churches in eight foreign countries. ...

Humanism, of which Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466–1536) was an important advocate, if not the founder, had also gained a firm foothold and was partially responsible for a climate of tolerance. Humanism[1] is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appeal to universal human qualities—particularly rationalism. ... Desiderius Erasmus in 1523 Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (also Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam) (October 27, probably 1466 – July 12, 1536) was a Dutch humanist and theologian. ...

This tolerance was not so easy to uphold towards Catholics, since religion played an important part in the Eighty Years War of independence against Spain (with political and economic freedom being other important motives). Hostile inclinations could however be overcome by money. Thus Catholics could buy the privilege to hold ceremonies in a conventicle (a house doubling inconspicuously as a church), but public offices were out of the question. Catholics tended to keep to themselves in their own section of each town (for example, the Catholic painter Johannes Vermeer lived in the "Papist corner" of the town of Delft). The same applied to Anabaptists and Jews. Girl with a Pearl Earring, known as the Mona Lisa of the North Johannes Vermeer or Jan Vermeer (baptized October 31, 1632, died December 15, 1675) was a Dutch painter who specialized in domestic interior scenes of ordinary bourgeois life. ... Country Netherlands Province South Holland Coordinates Area 24. ... Anabaptists (Greek ανα (again) +βαπτιζω (baptize), thus, re-baptizers[1], German: Wiedertäufer) are Christians of the Radical Reformation. ...

Overall, levels of tolerance were sufficiently high to attract religious refugees from other countries, notably Jewish merchants from Portugal who brought a lot of wealth with them. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in France in 1685 resulted in the immigration of many French Huguenots, many of whom were shopkeepers or scientists. Still tolerance had its limits, as philosopher Baruch de Spinoza (1632-1677) would find out. The Edict of Nantes was issued on April 13, 1598 by Henry IV of France to grant French Calvinists (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic. ... Events February 6 - James Stuart, Duke of York becomes King James II of England and Ireland and King James VII of Scotland. ... In the 16th and 17th centuries, the name of Huguenots came to apply to members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France. ... Baruch Spinoza Benedictus de Spinoza (November 24, 1632 _ February 21, 1677), named Baruch Spinoza by his synagogue elders and known as Bento de Spinoza or Bento dEspiñoza in the community in which he grew up. ... See also: 1632 (novel) Events February 22 - Galileos Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems is published July 23 - 300 colonists for New France depart Dieppe November 8 - Wladyslaw IV Waza elected king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth after Zygmunt III Waza death November 16 - Battle of Lützen... 1677 (MDCLXXVII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ...

[edit] Science

Due to its climate of intellectual tolerance the Dutch Republic attracted scientists and other thinkers from all over Europe. Especially the renowned University of Leiden (established in 1575 by the Dutch stadholder, William I of Orange, as a token of gratitude for Leiden's fierce resistance against Spain during the Eighty Years War) became a gathering place for these people. For instance French philosopher René Descartes lived in Leiden from 1628 till 1649. This article is 150 kilobytes or more in size. ... Leiden University in the city of Leiden, is the oldest university in the Netherlands. ... Year 1575 was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... A stadtholder (Dutch: stadhouder meaning representative, a literal translation of the French lieutenant or the Latin locum tenans) was the person who ruled an area in the name of the land owner, in the Netherlands (which includes present-day Belgium) from the 15th to the 18th century. ... William I (William the Silent) William I, Prince of Orange, Count of Nassau (April 24, 1533 – July 10, 1584) was the main leader of the Dutch revolt against the Spanish that set off the Eighty Years War and resulted in the formal independence of the United Provinces in 1648. ... The philosopher Socrates about to take poison hemlock as ordered by the court. ... René Descartes (March 31, 1596 – February 11, 1650), also known as Renatus Cartesius (latinized form), was a highly influential French philosopher, mathematician, scientist, and writer. ... 1628 was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar (or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... // Events January 30 - King Charles I of England, Scotland and Ireland is beheaded. ...

Dutch lawyers were famous for their knowledge of international law of the sea and commercial law. Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) laid the foundations for international law. He invented the concept of the Free seas or Mare liberum, which was fiercely contested by England, the Netherlands's main rival for domination of world trade. He also formulated laws with regard to conflicts between nations in his book De iure belli ac pacis (On laws of war and peace). English barrister 16th century painting of a civil law notary, by Flemish painter Quentin Massys. ... Admiralty law (usually referred to as simply admiralty and also referred to as maritime law) is a distinct body of law which governs maritime questions and offenses. ... Commercial law or business law is the body of law which governs business and commerce and is often considered to be a branch of civil law and deals both with issues of private law and public law. ... Hugo Grotius (Huig de Groot, or Hugo de Groot; Delft, 10 April 1583 – Rostock, 28 August 1645) worked as a jurist in the Dutch Republic and laid the foundations for international law, based on natural law. ... 1583 was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. ... // Events January 10 - Archbishop Laud executed on Tower Hill, London. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Motto (French) God and my right Anthem God Save the King (Queen) England() – on the European continent() – in the United Kingdom() Capital (and largest city) London (de facto) Official languages English (de facto) Government Constitutional monarchy  -  Queen Queen Elizabeth II  -  Prime Minister Tony Blair MP Unification  -  by Athelstan 967  Area...

Anton van Leeuwenhoek

Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695) was a famous mathematician, physicist and astronomer. He invented the pendulum clock, which was a major step forward towards exact timekeeping. Among his contributions in astronomy was his explanation of Saturn's planetary rings. He also contributed to the field of optics. The most famous Dutch scientist in the area of optics is certainly Anton van Leeuwenhoek, who invented or greatly improved the microscope (opinions differ) and was the first to methodically study microscopic life, thus laying the foundations for the field of microbiology. Image File history File links Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek. ... Image File history File links Antoni_van_Leeuwenhoek. ... Christiaan Huygens (pronounced in English (IPA): ; in Dutch: ) (April 14, 1629 – July 8, 1695), was a Dutch mathematician, astronomer and physicist; born in The Hague as the son of Constantijn Huygens. ... Events March 4 - Massachusetts Bay Colony is granted a Royal charter. ... Jan. ... Leonhard Euler is considered by many to be one of the greatest mathematicians of all time A mathematician is the person whose primary area of study and research is the field of mathematics. ... ... An astronomer or astrophysicist is a person whose area of interest is astronomy or astrophysics. ... A pendulum clock uses a pendulum as its time base. ... A planetary ring is a ring of dust and other small particles orbiting around a planet in a flat disc-shaped region. ... Table of Opticks, 1728 Cyclopaedia Optics ( appearance or look in ancient Greek) is a branch of physics that describes the behavior and properties of light and the interaction of light with matter. ... Anton van Leeuwenhoek Anton van Leeuwenhoek (October 24, 1632 - August 30, 1723, full name Thonius Philips van Leeuwenhoek (pronounced Layewenhook) was a Dutch tradesman and scientist from Delft, Netherlands. ... Robert Hookes microscope (1665) - an engineered device used to study living systems. ... An agar plate streaked with microorganisms Microbiology is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms. ...

Famous Dutch hydraulic engineer Jan Leeghwater (1575-1650) (whose name translates to Void of water or empty water) gained important victories in The Netherlands's eternal battle against the sea. Leeghwater added a lot of land to the republic by converting several large lakes into polders, pumping all water out with windmills. Jan Adriaanszoon Leeghwater (1575, De Rijp,The Netherlands - 1650) was a Dutch mill builder and hydraulic engineer. ... Year 1575 was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. ... Year 1650 (MDCL) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Tuesday of the 10-day slower Julian calendar). ... Satellite image of Noordoostpolder, Netherlands (595. ...

Again due to the Dutch climate of tolerance, book publishers flourished. Many books about religion, philosophy and science that might have been deemed controversial abroad were printed in the Netherlands and secretly exported to other countries. Thus during the 17th Century the Dutch Republic became more and more Europe's publishing house.

See also Dutch Golden Age, List Of People - Science The Dutch Golden Age was a period in Dutch history, roughly equivalent to the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science and art were top ranking in the world. ...

[edit] Culture

The Low Countries witnessed a cultural development that stood out from neighbouring countries. With some exceptions (notably Dutch playwright Joost van den Vondel) the Baroque movement did not gain much influence. Its exuberance did not fit the austerity of the largely Calvinistic population. Joost van den Vondel (1587-1679) was born in the Große Witschgasse in Cologne. ... Adoration, by Peter Paul Rubens. ... Calvinism is a theological system and an approach to the Christian life that emphasizes Gods sovereignty in all things. ...

The major force behind new developments was formed by the citizenry, notably in the western provinces: first and foremost in Holland, to a lesser extent Zeeland and Utrecht. Where rich aristocrats often became patrons of art in other countries, because of their comparative absence in the Netherlands this role was played by wealthy merchants and other patricians. Holland is a region in the central-western part of the Netherlands with 6. ... Capital Middelburg Queens Commissioner drs. ... Utrecht is the smallest province of the Netherlands, and is located in the center of the country. ...

Centres of cultural activity were town militia (Dutch: schutterij) and chambers of rhetoric (Dutch rederijkerskamer). The former were created for town defence and policing, but also served as a meeting-place for the well-to-do, who were proud to play a prominent part and paid a fair sum to see this preserved for posterity by means of a group portrait. The latter were associations on a city level, that fostered literary activities, like poetry, drama and discussions, often through contests. Cities took pride in their existence and promoted them.

[edit] Painting

Main article: Dutch Golden Age painting

Dutch artists had quite different customers from their colleagues in other European countries, where church and nobility were major patrons. This had an influence on the themes they depicted and their pictorial style. Also many paintings were not produced for commission and found their way to auctions and art traders. This fostered specialization, by which less than brilliant painters could dedicate themselves to themes of their own choosing and still excel in a particular genre. Johannes Vermeer Milkmaid 1658-1660 The Dutch Golden Age was a period in Dutch history, roughly spanning the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science, and art were among the most acclaimed in the world. ...

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[edit] Architecture

Main article: Dutch Baroque

Waag (Weigh House) — Gouda — 1667
Built by Pieter Post (1608-1669)

Dutch architecture was taken to a new height in the Golden Age. Due to the thriving economy cities expanded greatly. New town halls, weighhouses and storehouses were built. Merchants that had gained a fortune ordered a new house built along one of the many new canals that were dug out in and around many cities (for defense and transport purposes), a house with an ornamented façade that befitted their new status. In the countryside, many new castles and stately homes were built. Alas, most of them have not survived. Royal Palace (Amsterdam): Jacob van Campen, 1646. ... from Dutch WP (Gouda_waaggebouw_februari_2003. ... Goudas 15th Century Town Hall Flag of Gouda Goudas Cheese Market Gouda (population 71,797 in 2004) is a city in the western Netherlands, in the province of South Holland. ... // Events January 20 - Poland cedes Kyiv, Smolensk, and eastern Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo that put a final end to the Deluge, and Poland lost its status as a Central European power. ... Events March 18 - Sissinios formally crowned Emperor of Ethiopia May 14 - Protestant Union founded in Auhausen. ... // Events Samuel Pepys stopped writing his diary. ...

Early in the 17th century late Gothic elements still prevailed, combined with Renaissance motives. After a few decades French classicism gained prominence: vertical elements were stressed, less ornamentation was used, natural stone was preferred above bricks. In the last decades of the century this trend towards sobriety intensified. From around 1670 the most prominent features of a housefront were its entrance, with pillars on each side and possibly a balcony above it, but no further decoration. Interior of Cologne Cathedral Gothic architecture is a style of architecture, particularly associated with cathedrals and other churches, which flourished in Europe during the high and late medieval period. ... The Renaissance (French for rebirth, or Rinascimento in Italian), was a cultural movement in Italy (and in Europe in general) that began in the late Middle Ages, and spanned roughly the 14th through the 17th century. ... Classicism door in Olomouc, The Czech Republic Teatr Wielki in Warsaw Church La Madeleine in Paris Classicism, in the arts, refers generally to a high regard for classical antiquity, as setting standards for taste which the classicist seeks to emulate. ... 1670 was a common year beginning on a Saturday in countries using the Julian calendar and a Wednesday in countries using the Gregorian calendar. ...

Starting at 1595 Reformed churches were commissioned, many of which are still landmarks today. Events January 30 - William Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet is performed for the first time. ...

The most famous Dutch architects of the 17th century were: Jacob van Campen, Pieter and Maurits Post, Pieter Vingbooms, Lieven de Key, Hendrick de Keyser. Mauritshuis Jacob van Campen (1596 - 1657) was a Dutch artist and architect. ... The Vleeshal at the Grote Markt in Haarlem is a prime example of the work of Lieven de Key. ... Hendrick de Keyser (born: 15 May 1565 - died: 15 May 1621) was a Dutch sculptor and architect born in Utrecht, Spanish Habsburg, which is now in the Netherlands. ...

[edit] Sculpture

Dutch 17th century achievements in sculpture are valued less than in painting and architecture. Also fewer statues were created than in neighbouring countries. One reason for this was their complete absence in the interiors of Protestant churches; after all objection to Roman Catholic veneration of statues had been one of the factors that led to the Reformation. Another was the comparatively small class of nobles. Sculptures were commissioned for government buildings, private buildings (often adorning housefronts) and exteriors of churches. There was a clientele for grave monuments and portrait busts were in demand. The Protestant Reformation was a movement which began in the 16th century as a series of attempts to reform the Roman Catholic Church, but ended in division and the establishment of new institutions, most importantly Lutheranism, Reformed churches, and Anabaptists. ...

Dutch sculptors of the 17th century were: Hendrick de Keyser, Artus Quellinus. Hendrick de Keyser (born: 15 May 1565 - died: 15 May 1621) was a Dutch sculptor and architect born in Utrecht, Spanish Habsburg, which is now in the Netherlands. ... Mercurius, sculpture in the Amsterdam town hall Artus (Arnoldus) Quellijn, also known as Artus I Quellinus or Artus Quellinus the Elder (Antwerp, August 30, 1609 - Antwerp August 23, 1668) was a Flemish sculptor, who trained in Rome in the studio of François Duquesnoy and brought the classicizing Baroque style...

For more details see Dutch Golden Age, List Of People - Sculptors The Dutch Golden Age was a period in Dutch history, roughly equivalent to the 17th century, in which Dutch trade, science and art were top ranking in the world. ...

[edit] Szoon

Many Dutchmen from this period had a middle name ending on ~szoon, which means son of: the "s" is the genetive suffix and zoon means "son". It was also commonly written as ~sz., for instance Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn.^{[citation needed]} The genitive case is a grammatical case that indicates a relationship, primarily one of possession, between the noun in the genitive case and another noun. ... Look up Suffix in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

[edit] References

• Simon Schama, Embarrassment of Riches
• Jan de Vries and Ad van der Woude, The First Modern Economy: Success, failure, and perseverance of the Dutch economy, 1500-1815

• Castles,palaces and stately homes in the dutch golden age