Eastern Lombard (sometimes also called Orobic) is a group of dialects spoken in the eastern side of Lombardy, mainly in the provinces of Bergamo, Brescia and Mantua and in the area around Crema. These dialects are generally mutually intelligible for speakers of neighbouring areas but this is not always true for distant peripheric areas. For instance, an inhabitant of the alpine valleys of Bergamo can be hardly understood by a peasant of the plains of Mantua. Differences include either lexical, grammatical and phonetical aspects. Current distribution of Human Language Families A language family is a group of related languages said to have descended from a common proto-language. ... The Indo-European languages comprise a family of several hundred related languages and dialects [1], including most of the major languages of Europe, as well as many spoken in the Indian subcontinent (South Asia), the Iranian plateau (Southwest Asia), and Central Asia. ... The Italic subfamily is a member of the Centum branch of the Indo-European language family. ... The Romance languages, a major branch of the Indo-European language family, comprise all languages that descended from Latin, the language of the Roman Empire. ... The Gallo-Romance branch of Romance languages includes French, Oïl languages, Catalan, and Occitan, among other languages. ... Gallo-Italic is a language_family within the Gallo-Romance languages. ... The term Lombard refers to a group of related dialects spoken mainly in Northern Italy (most of Lombardy and some areas of neighbouring regions), in Southern Switzerland (Ticino and Graubünden). ... ISO 639-1 is the first part of the ISO 639 international-standard language-code family. ... ISO 639-2 is the second part of the ISO 639 standard, which lists codes for the representation of the names of languages. ... ISO 639-3 is in process of development as an international standard for language codes. ... The term Lombard refers to a group of related dialects spoken mainly in Northern Italy (most of Lombardy and some areas of neighbouring regions), in Southern Switzerland (Ticino and Graubünden). ... Not to be confused with the NATO phonetic alphabet, which has also informally been called the “International Phonetic Alphabet”. For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words, see IPA chart for English. ... Phonetics (from the Greek word φωνή, phone meaning sound, voice) is the study of the sounds of human speech. ... Unicode is an industry standard designed to allow text and symbols from all of the writing systems of the world to be consistently represented and manipulated by computers. ... This chart shows concisely the most common way in which the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is applied to represent the English language. ... The English language is a West Germanic language that originates in England. ... Lombardy (Italian: Lombardia, Lombard: Lumbardìa) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. ... Small street (via della Noca) leading to città alta. ... Country Italy Region Lombardy Province Brescia (BS) Mayor Paolo Corsini (since June 10, 2003) Elevation 150 m Area 90 km² Population  - Total (as of December 31, 2004) 192,165  - Density 2,087/km² Time zone CET, UTC+1 Coordinates Gentilic Bresciani Dialing code 030 Postal code 25100 Frazioni Fornaci, Sant... Mantua (in Italian Mantova, in the local dialect of Emiliano-Romagnolo language Mantua) is an important city in Lombardy, Italy and capital of the province with the same name. ... Crema (Italian, cream) is a key component in the flavor of espresso with the appearance of a golden foam on the surface of the coffee. ...

In Italian-speaking contexts, Eastern Lombard is often generically called a "dialect". This is often incorrectly understood as to mean a dialect of Italian, which actually is not the case. Eastern Lombard and Italian are different languages and are not mutually intelligible. A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος, dialektos) is a variety of a language characteristic of a particular group of the languages speakers. ...

Like all other dialects of Gallo-Italic, Eastern Lombard belongs to the Romance language related to French, Romansh, Italian, etc. A dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος) is a variant, or variety, of a language spoken in a certain geographical area. ... Gallo-Italic is a language_family within the Gallo-Romance languages. ... The Romance languages, also called Romanic languages, are a subfamily of the Italic languages, specifically the descendants of the Vulgar Latin dialects spoken by the common people evolving in different areas after the break-up of the Roman Empire. ... Romansh (also spelled Rumantsch, Romansch or Romanche) is any of the various Rhaetian languages spoken in Switzerland. ...

As per today, Eastern Lombard does not have any official status either in Lombardy or anywhere else: the only official language in Lombardy is Italian.


Lombardy (Italian: Lombardia, Lombard: Lumbardìa) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. ... An official language is a language that is given a unique legal status in the countries, states, and other territories. ...

Phonology

The following notes are essentially based on the variety of Eastern Lombard spoken in Brescia. The basic principle are generally valid also for the other varieties but local discrepancies can be found.

Eastern Lombard has 9 vowels and 20 consonants.
Country Italy Region Lombardy Province Brescia (BS) Mayor Paolo Corsini (since June 10, 2003) Elevation 150 m Area 90 km² Population  - Total (as of December 31, 2004) 192,165  - Density 2,087/km² Time zone CET, UTC+1 Coordinates Gentilic Bresciani Dialing code 030 Postal code 25100 Frazioni Fornaci, Sant... Note: This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. ... In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the vocal tract sufficient to cause audible turbulence. ...

Consonants

• The voiced consonants /b/, /d/, /g/, /v/, /z/, /dʒ/ never occur at the end of a word. This phenomenon, common to other languages (German, Dutch, Russian), is called final devoicing.

• The phoneme /tʃ/ is pronounced [j] before consonant. This never occurs inside a word as the segment /tʃ/+consonant doesn't exist in Eastern Lombard. Conversely, it occurs when /tʃ/ is in a final position in a word preceding another word beginning with a consonant. For example:

i è nacc vià - [i ɛ naj vja] = they have gone away

• The approximants /j/ and /w/ are distinct phonemes from the vocalic sounds /i/, /u/. This can be seen in the following examples:

/kwat/=how much
/kuˈat/=brooded

/pjat/=flat
/piˈat/=bitten

• The phoneme /n/ can undergo assimilation in accord with the articulation point of the following consonant. Thus, the /n/ in /-nk-/ and /-ng-/ is a velar [ŋ], the /n/ in /-nv-/ or /-nf-/ is a labiodental [ɱ]. The phoneme /n/ never occurs before p and b, where /m/ is used instead.
Assimilation takes place also when the two sounds occur in contiguous position but pertain to different words, i.e.:

en ca [ɛŋ ka] - (a dog)
vàghen fò [ˈvageɱ fɔ] - (hurry up)
l'an pasàt [l am paˈsat] - (the last year)
In phonetics, a bilabial consonant is a consonant articulated with both lips. ... In phonetics, labiodentals are consonants articulated with the lower lips and the upper teeth, or viceversa. ... Interdental consonants are produced by placing the blade of the tongue against the upper incisors. ... Alveolar consonants are articulated with the tongue against or close to the superior alveolar ridge, which is called that because it contains the alveoli (the sockets) of the superior teeth. ... Postalveolar (or palato-alveolar) consonants are consonants articulated with the tip of the tongue between the alveolar ridge (the place of articulation for alveolar consonants) and the palate (the place of articulation for palatal consonants). ... Palatal consonants are consonants articulated with the body of the tongue raised against the hard palate (the middle part of the roof of the mouth). ... Velars are consonants articulated with the back part of the tongue (the dorsum) against the soft palate (the back part of the roof of the mouth, known also as the velum). ... Glottal consonants are consonants articulated with the glottis. ... A stop or plosive or occlusive is a consonant sound produced by stopping the airflow in the vocal tract. ... A nasal consonant is produced when the velum—that fleshy part of the palate near the back—is lowered, allowing air to escape freely through the nose. ... In phonetics, a flap or tap is a type of consonantal sound, which is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that one articulator (such as the tongue) is thrown against another. ... Fricatives (or spirants) are consonants produced by forcing air through a narrow channel made by placing two articulators close together. ... Affricate consonants begin as stops (most often an alveolar, such as or ) but release as a fricative (such as or or, in a couple of languages, into a fricative trill) rather than directly into the following vowel. ... Approximants are speech sounds that could be regarded as intermediate between vowels and typical consonants. ... Laterals are L-like consonants pronounced with an occlusion made somewhere along the axis of the tongue, while air from the lungs escapes at one side or both sides of the tongue. ... The introduction of this article does not provide enough context for readers unfamiliar with the subject to understand later context. ...

• Locally, the sound /s/ is replaced by the sound /h/. This mainly happens in the prealpine valleys of the provinces of Bergamo and Brescia, thus Brescia is pronounced /ˈbrɛha/ instead of /ˈbrɛsa/¹.


• The sound /ʃ/ is used uniquely for loanwords, often coming from Italian. For example:

scià /ʃiˈa/ = to ski (from the Italian 'sciare')

Notes:

1. Actually, even in areas where this phenomenon is the rule, there are some interesting exceptions to take in account.

Words like grasie (eng. thanks) are never pronouced [ˈgrahje]. At present, indeed, the most common pronounce is [ˈgrasje] but a more genuine outcome (and often preferred by aged people) would be [ˈgrahtʃe].

Other examples for this feature:

licensià (to dismiss, to fire) -> [litʃenˈsja] / [lehenˈtʃa]

cristià (christian) -> [crisˈtja] / [crihˈtʃa]

pasiù (passion) -> [paˈsju] / [pahˈtʃu]

Vowels

Eastern Lombard has 9 vocalic sounds:

Only three vocalic phonemes are allowed for the final syllables when unstressed:
the phoneme /a/ uniquely for open syllables.
the phonemes /o/ and /e/ both for open and closed syllables.

Other vocalic sounds in final syllables can be found in loanwords.

The final sound of the word caàj (horses) is actually the approximant consonant /j/.

Locally, the phoneme /a/ is pronounced [ɔ] when it appears as last sound of the word in an unstressed syllable (actually slightly closer than the phonemic /ɔ/). For example:

[ˈlynɔ] (moon),
[sɛtɛˈmanɔ] (week).




Not to be confused with the NATO phonetic alphabet, which has also informally been called the “International Phonetic Alphabet”. For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words, see IPA chart for English. ... Vowels See also: IPA, Consonants Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... Vowels Near-close Close-mid Mid Open-mid Near-open Open Where symbols appear in pairs, the one to the right represents a rounded vowel. ... A syllable (Ancient Greek: ) is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. ... Approximants are speech sounds that could be regarded as intermediate between vowels and typical consonants. ... In articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a sound in spoken language that is characterized by a closure or stricture of the vocal tract sufficient to cause audible turbulence. ...

Unstressed vowel system reduction and local variability

The vowel system for the unstressed vowels is reduced if compared to the stressed vowels one.
In the urban Brescian variety for example [ɔ] and [o] no longer contrasts. This means that for the word robà (to steal) both pronunciations [roˈba] or [rɔˈba] are allowed and almost no difference is noticed by speakers. In addition, a further variant [ruˈba] is also possible. In this case, a difference is noticed by speakers but it is considered as a local variant and intelligibility is absolutely not compromised.
Again, the sound [u] replaces the sounds [o/ɔ] when the stressed vowel is /i/ or /u/, see the section on vowel harmonization described below.
The sounds [e] and [ɛ] also no longer contrast in unstressed syllables, therefore the word vedèl (calf) can be pronounced [veˈdɛl] or [vɛˈdɛl] indifferently. In this case also, [e/ɛ] is replaced by [i] in case of vowel harmonization. In other environments the interchange between [e/ɛ] and [i] is not accepted at the same degree of [o/ɔ] and [u]: an hypothetical variant [viˈdɛl] would be felt as a disagreeable pronunciation even if not completely contrastive (there are no mimimal pairs).
The contrast between the sounds [y] and [ø] is also eliminated and [y] replaces [ø] in case of vowel harmonization.
In conclusion, it is possible to say that only five contrastive vowel qualities are found in unstressed syllables:

[o/ɔ,(u)], [ø,(y)], [a], [e/ɛ], [i]

(but with the [i] not completely separated from [e/ɛ])

Some examples:

molà [moˈla] (to let go, to release)
mölà [møˈla] (to grind)
malàt [maˈlat] (sick)
pelàt [peˈlat] (bald)
milà [miˈla] (Milan)


The situation for other Eastern Lombard varieties however can be different, infact the rules of the unstressed vowel system varies according to the area.
In Franciacorta for example (province of Brescia) the sound [o] and [ø] are regularly replaced by [u] and [y] in pretonic position.

mulà (Franciacortan) instead of molà (Brescian)
Ruàt (Rovato, nameplace) instead of Roàt
Üspedalèt (Ospitaletto, nameplace) instead of Öspedalèt

Since in unstressed position these vocalic sounds are not contrastive, these local variants do not compromise reciprocal intelligibility.

Vowel harmonization

Eastern Lombard shows a regressive harmonization process involving the vocal height feature. When the stress falls on a closed vowel (/i/ or /u/) the preceding vowels shifts their height feature to the closest grade.
The vowel /a/ is not affected by this process and acts as opaque vowel blocking the harmonization process.
This phenomenon affects all the words independently from the function the word covers. So we have harmonization either in nouns, adjectives, verbs end so on.

As the diminutive and augmentative are formed with the suffix -ì and -ù (feminine -ìna and -ùna) respectively, this process is easily findable in nouns:

cortèl (knife)
curtilì (small knife)
curtilù (big knife)

This phenomenon should not be confused with the reduced distinctive importance of the unstressed vowels. An hypothetic variant cortelì is felt as incorrect.

As said before, the vowel /a/ acts as opaque vowel and blocks the harmonization process:

fontàna (fountain)
fontanì (small fountain)

öspedàl (hospital)
öspedalì (small hospital)

but vowels that comes after the /a/ are still affected:

mortadèla (type of Italian sausage)
mortadilìna

In these cases variants like funtanì, üspedalì (but not üspidalì) or murtadilìna are accepted (or locally preferred) but fall under the normal unstressed vowel variability.

Verbs are affected by this process in their conjugation, where the inflection contains a stressed /i/ (there are no verbal suffixes containing a stressed /u/).

córer (infinitive of to run)
córe (I person singular indicative present)
curìt (past participle)
curif (II person plural indicative present)
curìef (II person plural indicative imperfect)

béer (infinitve of to drink)
bée (I person singular indicative present)
biìt (past participle)
biìf (II person plural indicative present)
biìef (II person plural indicative imperfect)

öler (infinitve of to want)
öle (I person singular indicative present)
ülìt (past participle)
ülìf (II person plural indicative present)
ülìef (II person plural indicative imperfect)

Adjectives formed with the suffix -ùs (feminine -ùza) also observe this rule:

póra (fear)
purús (fearful person -masculine-)
purúza (fearful person -femenine-)

Orthography

Since Eastern Lombard is still principally an oral language, a commonly accepted orthography has never been established.
Actually, last years saw an increasing production of texts (mainly light comedies and poem collections) but each of them still follows their own writing rules.
In recent times, the problem of the orthography of the Bergamasque dialect have been faced up by the cultural society Ducat de Piassa Pontida. A translation of Andersen's tales has been published in 2003, following Ducat's rules.
Also, lately, placename road panels have appeared with the bilingual version of the placename (Italian and local dialect), which seems to suppose a certain effort of standardization but a widely accepted orthography seems still quite far.
The most problematic and controversial issues seem to be the representation of the intervocalic /s/ and /z/ (rendered by different authors with -ss-, -s- or -z-) and the final /tʃ/ vs. /k/ (rendered with -cc, -c or -ch).

This article follows the rules of the Italian orthography, with the following exceptions:

Italian ( , or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people,[1] primarily in Italy and Switzerland. ...

Writing of vowels

Diacritical marks are utilised for vocalic sounds to distinguish /e/ from /ɛ/ and /o/ from /ɔ/ in stressed syllables.
Also, umlaut is adopted to represent the rounded vowels /ø/ and /y/.
The word umlaut is used in both linguistic and typographic senses. ...

Note that accent is also used to indicate the stressed syllable in non-monosyllabic words.
Since unstressed vowels are less distinctive, it is not necessary to discriminate the open/close quality. This means that you can pronounce the word vedèl (calf) as [veˈdɛl] or [vɛˈdɛl] indifferently without compromising the comprehension.

Writing of consonants

The digraph -cc is used at the end of the word to represent the sound /tʃ/ (in other positions this sound is rendered by means of the usual Italian orthography rules).

A consonant sequence that is peculiar to Lombard is formed by a voiceless alveolar fricative and voiceless postalveolar affricate, in IPA: [-stʃ-]. This article adopts the convention of representing this sound as s·c, although other texts can follow different traditions (so, you may find, for the same sound, s'c or s-c or even the ambiguous sc).
This sequence, which is absent in Italian, can occur at the beginning of word, as in s·cèt (son, boy) /stʃɛt/; in the middle, as in brös·cia (brush) /ˈbrøstʃa/; or at the end, as in giös·cc (correct, adjective plural) /ˈdʒøstʃ/.

The sequence /-sdʒ-/ is also present in Eastern Lombard and not in Italian and is represented in this article with the sequence of signs -sgi-, like in:
The voiceless alveolar fricatives are consonantal sounds. ... The voiceless palato-alveolar fricative or domed postalveolar affricate is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. ... Not to be confused with the NATO phonetic alphabet, which has also informally been called the “International Phonetic Alphabet”. For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words, see IPA chart for English. ...

bàsgia /ˈbasdʒa/ - (large bowl)
sgionfà /sdʒonˈfa/ - (inflate)

Grammar

Main article: Eastern Lombard grammar

Eastern Lombard is similar to other Romance languages. The word order of Eastern Lombard is SVO and it has moderate inflection system: verbs are declined in mood, tense and aspect and agree with the subject. Nouns can be masculine or feminine and have a singular or plural form. Adjectives and pronouns agree with the corresponding nouns. It has prepositions and hardly any case marking. The Eastern Lombard Grammar reflects the main features of Romance languages: the word order of Eastern Lombard is usually SVO, nouns are inflected in number, adjectives agree in number and gender with the nouns, verbs are declined in tense, aspect and mood and agree with the subject in number and... Word order, in linguistic typology, refers to the order in which words appear in sentences across different languages. ... In linguistic typology, agent-verb-object (AVO), commonly called subject-verb-object (SVO), is a sentence structure where the agent comes first, the verb second, and the object third. ... In grammar, a preposition is a word that establishes a relationship between an object (usually a noun phrase) and some other part of the sentence, often expressing a location in place or time. ... In linguistics, declension is the inflection of nouns, pronouns and adjectives to indicate such features as number (typically singular vs. ...

Literature

The oldest known text written in Eastern Lombard dialect are fragments of a laud known as Mayor gremeza il mund no pothevela ancor aver, a manuscript found in Bovegno (Trompia valley), and dating from the XIV century, but the work known as Massera da bè (the good housewife, XVI century) also deserves a mention.
Anyway it is somewhat significant that the most important and internationally reknown work in Eastern Lombard actually is not a written text but a movie. In 1978 Ermanno Olmi won the Golden Palm at the Cannes Film Festival with L'albero degli zoccoli (The Tree of the Wooden Clogs), a movie entirely recited in Bergamasque.

As per today, literary production has increased in volume and mainly consists in light comedies and poem collections, (Angelo Canossi is a remarkable example for the Brescian dialect poetry) even if, according to: Ph.Blondeau: Les dialectes et la conscience linguistique dans la provincie de Bergame, PhD thesis, Sorbona University, Paris III, many authors claim that Eastern Lombard tongue is declining in quality, in its capability of expressing complex situations, emotions and of coping with a more complex syntax: this fact agrees with the general decline of the whole Lombard language.


The Trompia valley is a Bresciane valley and is 50 km long in lentgh from. ... Ermanno Olmi (born July 24, 1931) is a noted Italian director. ... The Palme dOr (Golden Palm) is the name of the highest prize given to a film at the Cannes Film Festival. ... Cannes Film Festival logo. ... LAlbero degli zoccoli (English title The Tree of Wooden Clogs, sometimes The Tree of the Wooden Clogs) is a 1978 film written and directed by Ermanno Olmi. ...

Examples

All the following exemples are in Brescian (the variety of Eastern Lombard spoken in city of Brescia)

Goodbye = Ariidìs /ariiˈdis/
Goodnight = Buonanòt /bwɔnaˈnɔt/
That one = Chèl là /kɛl ˈla/
How much = Quàt? /kwat/
Yesterday = Géer /ˈdʒeɛr/
Today = Encö /ɛnˈkø/
Tomorrow = Dumà /duˈma/
Yes = Sé /se/
No = Nò /nɔ/
Sorry = El me scüze /ɛl mɛ ˈskyze/
I don't understand = Capése mìa /kaˈpese ˈmia/
Where's the bathroom? = Endoél èl bagn? /ɛndoˈel ɛl baɲ/
Do you speak English? = Pàrlet inglés? /ˈparlɛt inˈgles/
Pota /'pɔta/ (Common interjection, used mainly in Brescian and Bergamasque)

Tongue-twisters:
ah chèla àca là che la a a cagà in chèla ca là = Look at that cow that is taking a shit in that house
sic sac dè sòc sèc söl solér a secà = Five sacks of dried logs in the loft to dry
en dè che nae a Nae go ncontrat el prèt de Nae, el ma dìt en do che nae me go dìt che nae a Nae = One day I was going to Nave when I met the priest of Nave, he asked me where I was going and I told him I was going to Nave
se fos de dì se se alà a bè a mò a mò ma dopo ma pota ma oh = If it were not so important it would be rather good, but in this case..

A tongue-twister is a phrase in any language that is designed to be difficult to articulate properly. ...

See also

• Lombard language
• Western Lombard
• Plural inflection in Eastern Lombard
• Dialects of Italy

The term Lombard refers to a group of related dialects spoken mainly in Northern Italy (most of Lombardy and some areas of neighbouring regions), in Southern Switzerland (Ticino and Graubünden). ... Western Lombard (Insubric) is a Lombard language variety spoken in Italy and Switzerland (Canton Ticino). ... The general lines of diachronics of Eastern Lombard plural declension are drawn here: // In Eastern Lombard tongue, feminine plural is generally derived from Latin first declination accusative -as; nouns from other classes first collapsed there; some concrete realisations are: -as>-a -as>-es>-e -as>-es>-ei>-i -as>-es... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...

External links

• Poetry in Eastern Lombard from 1902 (in Italian)
• Copy of the original dictionary Bresciano - Italiano (work in progress, in Italian)
• a Casiratese-Italian vocabulary, a dictionary for the Bergamasque (Casirate d'Adda) dialect, in Italian.
• A Dictionary for the Camunic variant of Eastern Lombard.