NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Economic class

A social class is, in the most basic sense, a group of people that shares the same or similar social status. Various schools of sociology differ in postulating which social traits are significant enough to define a class. A society is a group of human beings distinguishable from other groups by mutual interests, characteristic relationships, shared institutions and a common culture. ... Sociology is the study of the social lives of humans, groups, and societies, sometimes defined as the study of social interactions. ...

The relative importance and definition of membership in a particular class differs greatly over time and between societies, particularly in societies that have a legal differentiation of groups of people by birth or occupation. Occupation may refer to: the principal activity (job or calling) that earns money for a person (see profession, business) the periods of time following a nations territory invasion by controlling enemy troops (see belligerent occupation) any activity that occupies an important portion of a persons attention (see fan...

In the well-known example of socioeconomic class, many scholars view societies as stratifying into a hierarchical system based on economic status, wealth, or income. Economics (deriving from the Greek words οίκω [oeko], house, and νέμω [nemo], distribute) is the social science that studies the allocation of scarce resources. ...

Using wealth as a dimension, many have used a bi-partite model to view societies, from ancient history to the present day:

an Upper class of the immensely wealthy and/or powerful
a Lower class of the poor and/or weak

With the social changes of the 20th century, a gradually developing urban middle class appeared in most Western countries, producing three strata: There is no agreed-upon definition of power in economics. ... (19th century - 20th century - 21st century - more centuries) Decades: 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s As a means of recording the passage of time, the 20th century was that century which lasted from 1901–2000 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar (1900–1999 in the... The middle class (or middle classes) comprises a social group once defined by exception as an intermediate social class between the nobility and the peasantry. ...

an Upper class of the immensely wealthy and/or powerful
a Middle class of managers and highly paid professionals
a Lower class of people paid average or low wages or receiving "welfare". This includes the homeless.

(Some writers divide Middle & Lower classes between White collar & Blue collar jobs.) A homeless man pushes a cart down the street. ... White-collar workers perform tasks which are less laborious yet often more highly paid than blue-collar workers, who do manual work. ... A blue-collar worker is a working class employee who performs manual or technical labor, such as in a factory or in technical maintenance trades, in contrast to a white-collar worker, who does non-manual work generally at a desk. ...

Social class formed a very important component of Karl Marx's relations of production, which themselves formed one strand of each historically specific mode of production. He suggested that the primary social division was between a "ruling class" and a labouring class. Under slavery, this division corresponds to that between the slave-owners and the slaves, while under feudalism, it corresponds to that between lords and serfs. Under capitalism, Marx argued, the capitalists (the bourgeoisie) exploit the working class (the proletariat, or in other words the wage-earners). See labor theory of value. Karl Marx Karl Marx (May 5, 1818 – March 14, 1883) was an influential German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary organizer of the International Workingmens Association. ... Relations of production (German: Produktionsverhaltnisse) is a concept frequently used by Karl Marx in his theory of historical materialism. ... Acccording to marxism terminology, a mode of production is a particular combination of: productive forces: the material, social and productive techniques, materials and objects of a particular epoch, and relations of production: the particular property form and methods of exploitation of a particular epoch. ... In Marxian political economics, the ruling class refers to that segment or class of society that has the most economic and political power. ... A monument celebrating the emancipation of slaves in the British Empire in 1834, erected in Victoria Tower Gardens, Millbank, Westminster, London Look up Slavery in Wiktionary, the free dictionary Slavery can mean one or more related conditions which involve control of a person against his or her will, enforced by... Defining feudalism is difficult because there is no generally accepted agreement on what it means. ... A lord is one who has power and authority. ... Costumes of Slaves or Serfs, from the Sixth to the Twelfth Centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel, from original Documents in the great Libraries of Europe. ... Capitalism generally refers to in philosophy and politics, a social system based on the principle of individual rights, including property rights. ... Bourgeois at the end of the thirteenth century. ... In political economy, economics, and sociology, exploitation usually does not include simple theft, since the latter is not a persistent economic or social relationship, as when a pimp exploits his prostitute. ... The term working class is used to denote a social class. ... The proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is called a proletarian. ... The labor theory of value (LTV) is a theory in economics and political economy concerning a market-oriented or commodity-producing society: the theory equates the value of an exchangeable good or service (i. ...

Note that the Marxist definition of class polarisation is based in the first instance on how money is earned, not how much money is earned. The bourgeois are those who own capital assets or means of production (i.e. business owners), and hire people to work for them. Proletarians are those who do not own means of production and earn their living by working for the bourgeois and receiving wages. However, the amount of money earned becomes important in defining class boundaries, since beyond a certain amount, the capital owned removes the necessity to work for an employer. Persons from intermediate classes such as the middle class own substantial assets and earn higher incomes, possibily making their employment a matter of choice. In Marxist economics and its contemporary derivatives, the means of production [in German: Produktionsmittel] refers to physical, non-human, inputs used in production. ... The middle class (or middle classes) comprises a social group once defined by exception as an intermediate social class between the nobility and the peasantry. ...

The idea of social class entered the Western lexicon about the 1770's, with no specific originator.

Contents

1 Power and stratification

2 Ideas of Max Weber

3 Ideas of Karl Marx

3.1 Proletarianisation
3.2 Dialectics, or historical materialism, in Marxist Class
3.3 Objective and subjective factors in class in Marxism

4 Non-economic conceptions of class

5 Class in different parts of the world

6 See also

7 External link

8 Further reading

Power and stratification

Many sociologists and historians see that "higher" classes control subordinate classes.

Some view this as an oligarchy, i.e., a ruling class with the assistance of a middling class dominating the working class. Other theories are less critical of the upper classes, seeing them as protectors or innovators (not mere leeches). Oligarchy is a form of government where most political power effectively rests with a small segment of society (typically the most powerful, whether by wealth, military strength, ruthlessness, or political influence). ...

Ideas of Max Weber

When sociologists speak of "class" they usually mean economically based classes in modern or near pre-modern society. Modern usage of the word "class" outside of Marxism generally considers only the relative wealth of individuals or social groups, and not the ownership of the means of production. Sociology is the study of the social lives of humans, groups, and societies, sometimes defined as the study of social interactions. ... In sociology, a group is usually defined as a collection consisting of a number of people who share certain aspects, interact with one another, accept rights and obligations as members of the group and share a common identity. ...

The sociologist Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, with social, status and party classes (or politics) as conceptually distinct elements. Maximilian Weber (April 21, 1864 – June 14, 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who is considered one of the founders of the modern, antipositivistic study of sociology and public administration. ... Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification, with social class, status class and party class (or politics) as conceptually distinct elements. ... A political party is a political organization that subscribes to a certain ideology and seeks to attain political power within a government. ... Politics is the process and method of making decisions for groups. ...

Class is based on economic relationship to the market (owner, rentier, employee etc.)
Status has to do with non-economic qualities like honour and prestige (see status class)
Party refers to factors having to do with affiliations in the political domain (see party class)

All three dimensions have consequences for what Weber called "life chances". See: relational model personal relationship mathematical relationship, including: inverse relationship direct relationship relation (mathematics). ... A market is a mechanism which allows people to trade, normally governed by the theory of supply and demand, so allocating resources through the price mechanism. ... A rentier is a person who lives on the income from property, bond interest, or other investment and is not personally involved in its operation. ... Employment is a contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee. ... Honour (or honor) comprises the reputation, self-perception or moral identity of an individual or of a group. ... Prestige means good reputation or high esteem. ... The sociologist Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification in which he defines status class (also known as a status group) as a group of people (part of a society) that can be differentiated on the basis of non-economical qualities like honour, prestige and religion. ... The sociologist Max Weber formulated a three-component theory of stratification in which he defines party class as a group of people (part of a society) that can be differentiated on the basis of their affiliations in the political domain. ...

Ideas of Karl Marx

Karl Marx defined class in terms of the extent to which an individual or social group has control over the means of production. Karl Marx Karl Marx (May 5, 1818 – March 14, 1883) was an influential German philosopher, political economist, and revolutionary organizer of the International Workingmens Association. ... In metaphysics and statistics, the word individual, while sometimes meaning a person, more typically describes any numerically singular thing. ... There is no agreed-upon definition of power in economics. ... In Marxist economics and its contemporary derivatives, the means of production [in German: Produktionsmittel] refers to physical, non-human, inputs used in production. ...

In Marxist terms a class is a group of people defined by their relationship to the means of production. Classes are seen to have their origin in the division of the social product into a necessary product and a surplus product. Marxists explain history in terms of a war of classes between those who control production and those who actually produce the goods or services in society (and also developments in technology and the like). In the Marxist view of capitalism, this is a conflict between capitalists (bourgeoisie) and wage-workers (proletariat). For Marxists, class antagonism is rooted in the situation that control over social production necessarily entails control over the class which produces goods -- in capitalism this is the exploitation of workers by the bourgeoisie. In Marxist economics and its contemporary derivatives, the means of production [in German: Produktionsmittel] refers to physical, non-human, inputs used in production. ... Marxism is the political practice and social theory based on the works of Karl Marx, a 19th century German philosopher, economist, journalist, and revolutionary, along with Friedrich Engels. ... A history resource for kids -Chronology of Events in History, Mythology, and Folklore. ... Class Warfare is a book of interviews with Noam Chomsky conducted by David Barsamian. ... Technology (Gr. ... Capitalism has been defined in various ways (see definitions of capitalism). ... Bourgeois at the end of the thirteenth century. ... The term working class is used to denote a social class. ... The proletariat (from Latin proles, offspring) is a term used to identify a lower social class; a member of such a class is called a proletarian. ... In political economy, economics, and sociology, exploitation usually does not include simple theft, since the latter is not a persistent economic or social relationship, as when a pimp exploits his prostitute. ... Bourgeois at the end of the thirteenth century. ...

Proletarianisation

The most important transformation of society for Marxists has been the massive and rapid growth of the proletariat in the world population during the last two hundred and fifty years. Starting with agricultural and domestic textile labourers in England and Flanders, more and more occupations only provide a living through wages or salaries. Private enterprise or self-employment in a variety of occupations is no longer as viable as it once was, and so many people who once controlled their own labour-time are converted into proletarians. Today groups which in the past subsisted on stipends or private wealth -- like doctors, academics or lawyers -- are now increasingly working as wage labourers. Marxists call this process "proletarianisation," and point to it as the major factor in the proletariat being the largest class in current societies in the rich countries of the "first world."

The increasing dissolution of the peasant-lord relationship, initially in the commercially active and industrialising countries, and then in the unindustrialised countries as well, has virtually eliminated the class of peasants. Poor rural labourers still exist, but their current relationship with production is predominantly as landless wage labourers or rural proletarians. The destruction of the peasantry, and its conversion into a rural proletariat, is largely a result of the general proletarianisation of all work. This process is today largely complete, although it was arguably incomplete in the 1960s and 1970s. Categories: 1911 Britannica | Historical stubs | Feudalism ...

Dialectics, or historical materialism, in Marxist Class

Marx saw class categories as defined by continuing historical processes. Classes, in Marxism, are not static entities, but are regenerated daily through the productive process. Marxism views classes as human social relationships which change over time, with historical commonality created through shared productive processes. A 17th-century farm labourer who worked for day wages shares a similar relationship to production as an average office worker of the 21st century. In this example it is the shared structure of wage labour that makes both of these individuals "working class."

Objective and subjective factors in class in Marxism

Marxism has a rather heavily defined dialectic between objective factors (i.e., material conditions, the social structure) and subjective factors (i.e. the conscious organization of class members). While most Marxism analyses people's class status based on objective factors (class structure), major Marxist trends have made excellent use of subjective factors in understanding the history of the working class. E.P. Thompson's Making of the English Working Class is a definitive example of this "subjective" Marxist trend. Thompson analyses the English working class as a group of people with shared material conditions coming to a positive self-consciousness of their social position. This feature of social class is commonly termed class consciousness in Marxism. It is seen as the process of a "class in itself" moving in the direction of a "class for itself," a collective agent that changes history rather than simply being a victim of the historical process. Class consciousness is a category of Marxist theory, referring to the self-awareness of a social class, its capacity to act in its own rational interests, or measuring the extent to which an individual is conscious of the historical tasks their class (or class allegiance) sets for them. ...

Non-economic conceptions of class

In contrast to simple income--property hierarchies, and to structural class schemes like Weber's or Marx's, there are theories of class based on other distinctions, such as culture or educational attainment. At times, social class can be related to elitism, and those in the higher class are usually known as the "social elite". Elitism is a belief or attitude that an elite— a selected group of persons whose personal abilities, specialized training or other attributes place them at the top of any field (see below)— are the people whose views on a matter are to be taken most seriously, or who are alone... Elite may refer to Elitism - the concept of social stratification by innate or social qualities Elite - computer software game Elite - a skilled hacker Elite Systems, a UK video game developer. ...

For example, Bourdieu seems to have a notion of high and low classes comparable to that of Marxism, insofar as their conditions are defined by different habitus, which is in turn defined by different objectively classifiable conditions of existence. In fact, one of the principal distinction Bourdieu makes is a distinction between bourgeois taste and the working class taste. Pierre Bourdieu Pierre-Félix Bourdieu (August 1, 1930-January 23, 2002) was a French sociologist. ... Bourgeois at the end of the thirteenth century. ... The term working class is used to denote a social class. ...

Class in different parts of the world

At various times the division of society into classes and estates has had various levels of support in law. At one extreme we find old Indian castes, which one could neither enter after birth, nor leave (though this applied only in relatively recent history). Feudal Europe had estates clearly separated by law and custom. On the other extreme there exist classes in modern Western societies which appear very fluid and have little support in law. Law (a loanword from Old Norse lag), in politics and jurisprudence, is a set of rules or norms of conduct which mandate, proscribe or permit specified relationships among people and organizations, provide methods for ensuring the impartial treatment of such people, and provide punishments for those who do not follow... The word Caste is derived from the Portuguese word casta, meaning lineage, breed or race. ... For alternative meanings for The West in the United States, see the U.S. West and American West. ...

The extent to which classes are important differs also in western societies, though in most societies class as an objective measure has very strong empirical effects on life chances (e.g. educational achievement, life-time earnings, health outcomes). Only in the strongly social-democratic societies such as Sweden is there much long-term evidence of the weakening of the consequences of social class.

The effect of class on vote or life-style is more variable across countries and over time.

External link

Dictionary of the history of ideas: (http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-54) Class

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