NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Economy of Indonesia

Indonesia has a market-based economy in which the government plays a significant role. It owns more than 164 state-owned enterprises and administers prices on several basic goods, including fuel, rice, and electricity. In the aftermath of the financial and economic crisis that began in mid-1997, the government took custody of a significant portion of private sector assets through acquisition of nonperforming bank loans and corporate assets through the debt restructuring process. Image File history File links Emblem-important. ... The 1998-2001 series of rupiah banknotes Rupiah (Rp) is the monetary unit of Indonesia (currency code IDR). ... APEC redirects here. ... ASEAN[1], pronounced // (AH-SEE-AHN) in English, or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, is a geo-political and economic organization of 10 countries located in Southeast Asia, which was formed on August 8, 1967 by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand[2] as a display of solidarity... For other uses of the initials WTO, see WTO (disambiguation). ... Not to be confused with APEC. OPEC Logo The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an international cartel[1][2] made up of Iraq, Indonesia, Iran, Kuwait, Libya, Angola, Algeria, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. ... Gross domestic product (by purchasing power parity) in 2006 The purchasing power parity (PPP) theory was developed by Gustav Cassel in 1920. ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... There are three lists of countries of the world sorted by their gross domestic product (GDP) (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year). ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... It has been suggested that this article be split into multiple articles accessible from a disambiguation page. ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Map of countries showing percentage of population who have an income below the national poverty line The poverty line is the level of income below which one cannot afford to purchase all the resources one requires to live. ... 1998 is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year of the Ocean. ... 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... For the album by Prince, see 1999 (album) 1999 is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas Ignacy Åukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ... For other uses, see Gas (disambiguation). ... Toy constructed from plywood. ... This article is about the type of fabric. ... This does not cite any references or sources. ... 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar, and also: The International Year of Freshwater The European Disability Year Events January events January 1 Luíz Inácio Lula Da Silva becomes the 37th President of Brazil. ... 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar, and also: The International Year of Freshwater The European Disability Year Events January events January 1 Luíz Inácio Lula Da Silva becomes the 37th President of Brazil. ... 2003 is a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar, and also: The International Year of Freshwater The European Disability Year Events January events January 1 Luíz Inácio Lula Da Silva becomes the 37th President of Brazil. ... 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2004 is a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... USD redirects here. ... For other uses, see Fuel (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation). ... Electricity (from New Latin Ä“lectricus, amberlike) is a general term for a variety of phenomena resulting from the presence and flow of electric charge. ... The Asian financial crisis was a financial crisis that started in July 1997 in Thailand and affected currencies, stock markets, and other asset prices in several Asian countries, many considered East Asian Tigers. ... A non-performing loan is a loan that is in default or close to being in default. ...

Background

Current GDP per capita grew an astonishing 545% in the Seventies fuelled by oil demand. But this proved unsustainable and growth fell sharply to a manageable 20% in the Eighties and 13% in the Nineties.

During the thirty years of president Suharto's "New Order" government, Indonesia's economy grew from a per capita GDP of $70 to more than $1,000 by 1996. Through prudent monetary and fiscal policies, inflation was held in the 5%–10% range, the rupiah was stable and predictable, and the government avoided domestic financing of budget deficits. Much of the development budget was financed by concessional foreign aid. Suharto GCB (born June 8, 1921) is a former Indonesian military and political leader. ... United States one-dollar bill Canadian one-dollar coin (Loonie) One New Taiwan dollar Australian one-dollar coin 500 old Zimbabwean dollars The dollar (often represented by the dollar sign: $) is the name of the official currency in several countries, dependencies and other regions. ... Look up policy in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The 1998-2001 series of rupiah banknotes Rupiah (Rp) is the monetary unit of Indonesia (currency code IDR). ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Development aid. ...

In the mid-1980s, the government began eliminating regulatory obstacles to economic activity. The steps were aimed primarily at the external and financial sectors and were designed to stimulate employment and growth in the non-oil export sector. Annual real GDP growth averaged nearly 7% from 1987–1997, and most analysts recognized Indonesia as a newly industrializing economy and emerging major market.

High levels of economic growth from 1987–1997 masked a number of structural weaknesses in Indonesia's economy. The legal system was very weak, and there was and is no effective way to enforce contracts, collect debts, or sue for bankruptcy. Banking practices were very unsophisticated, with collateral-based lending the norm and widespread violation of prudential regulations, including limits on connected lending. Non-tariff barriers, rent-seeking by state-owned enterprises, domestic subsidies, barriers to domestic trade, and export restrictions all created economic distortions. Notice of closure stuck on the door of a computer store the day after its parent company, Granville Technology Group Ltd, declared bankruptcy (strictly, put into administrationâ€”see text) in the United Kingdom. ... â€¹ The template below (Expand) is being considered for deletion. ...

The regional financial problems that swept into Indonesia in late 1997 quickly became an economic and political crisis. Indonesia's initial response was to float the rupiah, raise key domestic interest rates, and tighten fiscal policy. In October 1997, Indonesia and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reached agreement on an economic reform program aimed at macroeconomic stabilization and elimination of some of the country's most damaging economic policies, such as the National Car Program and the clove monopoly, both involving family members of President Suharto. The rupiah failed to stabilize for any significant period of time, however, and President Suharto was forced to resign in May 1998. In August 1998, Indonesia and the IMF agreed on an Extended Fund Facility (EFF) under President B.J Habibie that included significant structural reform targets. President Abdurrahman Wahid took office in October 1999, and Indonesia and the IMF signed another EFF in January 2000. The new program also has a range of economic, structural reform, and governance targets. â€œIMFâ€ redirects here. ... Binomial name (L.) Merrill & Perry A single dried clove flower bud Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, syn. ... Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie (born June 25, 1936), more commonly known simply as Rudy Habibie or B J Habibie, was the third President of Indonesia, holding office from 1998 to 1999. ... Abdurrahman Wahid (also known as Gus Dur) (born August 4, 1940) was the President of Indonesia from 1999 to 2001, and founder of the National Awakening Party (PKB). ...

The effects of the financial and economic crisis were severe. In 1998, real GDP contracted by an estimated 13.7%. The economy bottomed out in mid-1999, and real GDP growth for the year was an anemic 0.3%. Inflation reached 77%in 1998 but slowed to 2% in 1999. The rupiah, which had been in the Rp 2,400/USD1 range in 1997 reached Rp 17,000/USD1 at the height of the 1998 violence, returned to the Rp 6,500–8,000/USD1 range in late 1998. It has traded in the Rp 6,500–9,000/USD1 range since, with significant volatility. Although a severe drought in 1997–1998 forced Indonesia to import record amounts of rice, overall imports dropped precipitously in the early stage of the crisis in response to the unfavorable exchange rate, reduced domestic demand, and absence of new investment. Although reliable unemployment data are not available, formal sector employment contracted significantly.

In late 2005 Indonesia faced a 'mini-crisis' due to international oil prices rises and imports. The currency reached Rp 12,000/USD1 before stabilizing. The government was forced to cut its massive fuel subsidies, which were to cost $14 billion for 2005, in October.^[1] This led to a more than doubling in the price of consumer fuels, resulting in double-digit inflation. The situation has stabilized, but the economy continues to struggle with inflation at 17% in January 2006. To mitigate consequent economic hardship, the government has offered one-time subsidies to eligible citizens, effectively becoming Indonesia's first significant government-funded social security benefit scheme.^[2] This article or section contains speculation and may try to argue its points. ... A subsidy is generally a monetary grant given by government in support of an activity regarded as being in the public interest. ... Social security primarily refers to social welfare service concerned with social protection, or protection against socially recognized conditions, including poverty, old age, disability, unemployment and others. ...

As of early 2006, Indonesia's economic outlook is more positive. Economic growth accelerated to 5.1% in 2004 and reached 5.6% in 2005. Real per capita income has reached pre-crisis levels. Growth is driven primarily by domestic consumption, which accounts for roughly three-fourths of Indonesia's gross domestic product. The Jakarta Stock Exchange was the best performing market in Asia in 2004, up some 42%. Problems that continue to put a drag on growth include low foreign investment levels, bureaucratic red tape, and widespread corruption. However, there is very strong optimism with the conclusion of peaceful elections during the year 2004 and the election of the reformist president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. Bursa Efek Jakarta (BEJ) or Jakarta Stock Exchange (JSX) is a stock exchange based in Jakarta, Indonesia. ... General (ret. ...

Investment

Since the late 1980s, Indonesia has made significant changes to its regulatory framework to encourage economic growth. This growth was financed largely from private investment, both foreign and domestic. U.S. investors dominated the oil and gas sector and undertook some of Indonesia's largest mining projects. In addition, the presence of US banks, manufacturers, and service providers expanded, especially after the industrial and financial sector reforms of the 1980s. Other major foreign investors included Japan, the United Kingdom, Singapore, the Netherlands, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and South Korea. Chuquicamata, the second largest open pit copper mine in the world, Chile. ...

The economic crisis made continued private financing imperative but problematic. New foreign investment approvals fell by almost two-thirds between 1997 and 1999. The crisis further highlighted areas where additional reform was needed. Frequently cited areas for improving the investment climate were establishment of a functioning legal and judicial system, adherence to competitive processes, and adoption of internationally acceptable accounting and disclosure standards. Despite improvements in the laws in recent years, Indonesia's intellectual property rights regime remains weak; lack of effective enforcement is a major concern. Under Suharto, Indonesia had moved toward private provision of public infrastructure, including electric power, tollroads, and telecommunications. The financial crisis brought to light serious weaknesses in the process of dispute resolution, however, particularly in the area of private infrastructure projects. Although Indonesia continued to have the advantages of a large labor force, abundant natural resources and modern infrastructure, private investment in new projects largely ceased during the crisis.

The stock market capitalisation of listed companies in Indonesia was valued at $81,428 million in 2005 by the World Bank.[2] Market capitalization, often abbreviated to market cap, mkt. ... The World Bank (the Bank), a part of the World Bank Group (WBG), was formally established on December 27, 1945, following the ratification of the Bretton Woods agreement. ...

Economic relations with the United States

U.S. exports to Indonesia in 1999 totaled $2.0 billion, down significantly from $4.5 billion in 1997. The main exports were construction equipment, machinery, aviation parts, chemicals, and agricultural products. U.S. imports from Indonesia in 1999 totaled $9.5 billion and consisted primarily of clothing, machinery and transportation equipment, petroleum, natural rubber, and footwear. Economic assistance to Indonesia is coordinated through the Consultative Group on Indonesia (CGI), formed in 1989. It includes 19 donor countries and 13 international organizations that meet annually to coordinate donor assistance. This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Look up aviation in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

The U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) has provided development assistance to Indonesia since 1950. Initial assistance focused on the most urgent needs of the new republic, including food aid, infrastructure rehabilitation, health care, and training. Through the 1970s, a time of great economic growth in Indonesia, USAID played a major role in helping the country achieve self-sufficiency in rice production and in reducing the birth rate. Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 351 pixelsFull resolution (1425 Ã— 625 pixel, file size: 60 KB, MIME type: image/png) This bubble map shows the global distribution of Indonesian exports in 2006 as a percentage of the top market (Japan - $22,014,600,000). ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 351 pixelsFull resolution (1425 Ã— 625 pixel, file size: 60 KB, MIME type: image/png) This bubble map shows the global distribution of Indonesian exports in 2006 as a percentage of the top market (Japan - $22,014,600,000). ... The United States Agency for International Development (or USAID) is the US government organization responsible for most non-military foreign aid. ...

USAID's current program aims to support Indonesia as it recovers from the financial crisis by providing food aid, employment generating activities, and maintaining critical public health services. USAID is also providing technical advisers to help the Indonesian Government implement economic reforms and fiscal decentralization and is supporting democratization and civil society development activities through non-governmental organizations.

Macro-economic trend

This is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Indonesia at market prices estimated by the IMF with figures in millions of rupiah.

For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar is exchanged at 3,094.57 rupiah only.

Structure of the economy

Agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishery

Food crops

Statistics Indonesia provisionally valued food crop yields at 213,529,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 35% growth since 2003.[3] Statistics Indonesia, known in Indonesia as BPS (or Biro Pusat Statistik, the Indonesian translation of Central Bureau Statistics), is a non-departmental government institute of Indonesia who is responsible to conduct statistical surveys. ...

Estate crops

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued estate crop yields at 62,690,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 34% growth since 2003.[4] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Livestock

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued livestock and its derivative products at 51,276,400 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 37% growth since 2003.[5] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Forestry

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued forestry at 30,017,000 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 63% growth since 2003.[6] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Fishery

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued fishery at 72,979,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 60% growth since 2003.[7] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Mining and quarrying

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the oil and gas mining industry at 187,893,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 97% growth since 2003.[8] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Indonesia is the only Asian member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) outside of the Middle East, and is the only OPEC member that is a net oil importer. In early 2005, Indonesian crude oil and condensate output was 1.07 million barrels per day. This is a substantial decline from the 1990s, due primarily to aging oil fields and a lack of investment in oil production equipment. In 1999, Crude and condensate output averaged 1.5 million barrels (240,000 m³) per day, and in the 1998 calendar year the oil and gas sector, including refining, contributed approximately 9% to GDP. This decline in production since the 1990s has been accompanied by a substantial increase in domestic consumption, about 5.4% per year, leading to an expected US$1.2 billion cost for importing oil in 2005. The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is made up of Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela; since 1965, its international headquarters have been in Vienna, Austria. ... A map showing countries commonly considered to be part of the Middle East The Middle East is a region comprising the lands around the southern and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Sea, a territory that extends from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. ... 2005 is a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... â€œbblâ€ redirects here. ... â€œbblâ€ redirects here. ... The cubic meter (symbol mÂ³) is the SI derived unit of volume. ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ...

The state owns all petroleum and mineral rights. Foreign firms participate through production-sharing and work contracts. Oil and gas contractors are required to finance all exploration, production, and development costs in their contract areas; they are entitled to recover operating, exploration, and development costs out of the oil and gas produced. Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas Ignacy Åukasiewicz - inventor of the refining of kerosene from crude oil. ... For other uses, see Mineral (disambiguation). ...

Indonesia's fuel production has declined significantly over the years, owing to aging oil fields and lack of investment in new equipment. As a result, despite being an exporter of crude oil, Indonesia is now a net importer of oil and had previously subsidized fuel prices to keep prices low, costing US$ 7 billion in 2004 [9]. The current president has mandated a significant reduction of government subsidy of fuel prices in several stages [10]. In order to alleviate economic hardships, the government has offered one-time subsidies to qualified citizens. The government has stated the cuts in subsidies are aimed at reducing the budget deficit to 1% of gross domestic product (GDP) this year, down from around 1.6% last year.

Non-oil and gas mining

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the non-oil and gas mining industry at 130,861,000 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 145% growth since 2003.[11] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Indonesia is the world's largest tin market. Although mineral production traditionally centered on bauxite, silver, and tin, Indonesia is expanding its copper, nickel, gold, and coal output for export markets. In mid-1993, the Department of Mines and Energy reopened the coal sector to foreign investment, with the result that the leading Indonesian coal producer now is a joint venture between UK firms - BP and Rio Tinto. Total coal production reached 74 million metric tons in 1999, including exports of 55 million tons. Two US firms operate three copper/gold mines in Indonesia, with a Canadian and British firm holding significant other investments in nickel and gold, respectively. In 1998, the value of Indonesian gold production was $1 billion and copper, $843 million. Receipts from gold, copper, and coal comprised 84% of the $3 billion. Earned in 1998 by the mineral mining sector. Bauxite with penny Bauxite with core of unweathered rock Bauxite is an aluminium ore. ... This article is about the chemical element. ... This article is about the metallic chemical element. ... For other uses, see Copper (disambiguation). ... General Name, symbol, number nickel, Ni, 28 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 10, 4, d Appearance lustrous, metallic and silvery with a gold tinge Standard atomic weight 58. ... GOLD refers to one of the following: GOLD (IEEE) is an IEEE program designed to garner more student members at the university level (Graduates of the Last Decade). ... Coal Coal (IPA: ) is a fossil fuel formed in swamp ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ... The Department of Mines and Energy (DOE) is a Queensland government department dealing with Queenslands energy sector. ... This article is about the energy corporation. ... Rio Tinto is a multinational mining and resources group founded originally in 1873 to mine the copper ores found in southern Spain at the site of an ancient mine which supplied the Roman Empire. ...

Quarrying

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the quarrying industry at 35,872,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 87% growth since 2003.[12] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Manufacturing

Oil and gas manufacturing

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the petroleum refinery industry at 119,833,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 139% growth since 2003[13] while the liquefied natural gas industry was valued at 53,791,300 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 94% growth since 2003. Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Non-oil and gas manufacturing

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the food, beverage and tobacco industry at 213,173,300 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 38% growth since 2003.[14] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Textile, leather products and footwear industry was valued at 90,871,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 34% growth since 2003.

Wood and wood products industry was valued at 44,410,400 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 48% growth since 2003.

Paper and printing products industry was valued at 39,968,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 43% growth since 2003.

Fertilisers, chemicals and rubber products industry was valued at 95,765,000 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 68% growth since 2003.

Cement and non-metallic quarry products industry was valued at 29,015,100 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 50% growth since 2003.

Iron, steel and other basic metals industry was valued at 20,492,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 52% growth since 2003.

Transport equipment, machinery and apparatus industry was valued at 221,891,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 87% growth since 2003.

Other manufacturing industries were valued at 7,148,300 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 67% growth since 2003.

Electricity, gas and water supply

Electricity

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the electricity industry at 21,247,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 51% growth since 2003.[15] The vast majority of production is with conventional fossil units, but hydroelectric and other renewables make a contribution. Total electric production in 2005 was 100 TWh. Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Indonesia has expressed interest recently in possible use of nuclear plants. This article is about applications of nuclear fission reactors as power sources. ...

Nuclear reactors in Indonesia (view) Research Reactors Possible locations for a power plant The nuclear program of Indonesia includes plans to build nuclear reactors in the country to produce nuclear power for peaceful purposes. ...

City gas

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the city gas industry at 5,036,100 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 119% growth since 2003.[16] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Water supply

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the water suppply industry at 4,115,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 43% growth since 2003.[17] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Construction

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the construction industry at 249,127,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 98% growth since 2003.[18] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Trade, hotel and restaurant

Wholesale and retail trade

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the wholesale and retail trades at 386,872,500 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 48% growth since 2003.[19] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Hotels

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the hotel industry at 17,248,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 52% growth since 2003.[20] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Restaurants

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the restaurant industry at 92,214,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 45% growth since 2003.[21] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Transport and communication

Transport

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued railway transport at 1,345,000 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 16% growth since 2003.[22] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Road transport was valued at 81,449,500 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 106% growth since 2003.

Sea transport was valued at 16,120,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 34% growth since 2003.

River, lake and ferry transport was valued at 4,510,700 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 53% growth since 2003.

Air transport was valued at 14,685,200 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 96% growth since 2003.

Other services allied to transport industry were valued at 24,868,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 49% growth since 2003.

Communication

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the communication industry at 87,941,600 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 123% growth since 2003.[23] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Finance, real estate and business services

Banking

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the banking industry at 97,708,300 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 31% growth since 2003.[24] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Non-bank finance institutions

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the non-bank finance industry at 26,682,500 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 87% growth since 2003. [25] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Services allied to finance

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued other services allied to finance industry at 2,006,300 million rupiahs in 2006thus registering over 82% growth since 2003.[26] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Real estate

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the real estate industry at 97,764,400 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 72% growth since 2003.[27] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Business services

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued other business support services at 47,381,600 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 71% growth since 2003.[28] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Other services

General government

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued government administration and defence services at 103,508,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 63% growth since 2003.[29] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Other government services were valued at 64,290,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 67% growth since 2003.

Private

Badan Pusat Statistik provisionally valued the social and community services at 60,319,400 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 92% growth since 2003.[30] Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS) is the national statistics institution of Indonesia. ...

Amusement and recreational services were valued at 10,018,800 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 46% growth since 2003.

Personal and household services were valued at 100,247,900 million rupiahs in 2006 thus registering over 69% growth since 2003.

Public expenditure

Since the Asian financial crisis in the late 1990s, which brought down the Suharto regime in its wake in May 1998, Indonesia’s public finances have undergone a major transformation. The financial crisis itself caused a huge economic contraction and a commensurate decline in public spending. Not surprisingly, debt and subsidies increased dramatically, while development spending was sharply curtailed.

Now, one decade later, Indonesia has moved out of crisis and into a situation in which the country once again has sufficient financial resources to address its development needs. This change has come about as a result of prudent macroeconomic policies, the most important of which has been very low budget deficits. Also, the way in which the government spends money has been transformed by the 2001 ‘big bang’ decentralization, which has resulted in over one-third of all government spending being transferred to sub-national governments by 2006. Equally important, in 2005, spiraling international oil prices caused Indonesia’s domestic fuel subsidies to run out of control, threatening the country’s hard won macroeconomic stability. Despite the political risks of major price hikes in fuel driving more general inflation, the government took the brave decision to slash fuel subsidies.

This decision freed up an extra US$10 billion for government spending on development programs.[31] Meanwhile, by 2006 an additional US$5 billion had become available thanks to a combination of increased revenues boosted by steady growth of the overall economy, and declining debt service payments, a hangover from the economic crisis.[32] This meant that in 2006 the government had an extra US$15 billion to spend on development programs.[33] The country has not seen “fiscal space” of such magnitude since the revenue windfall experienced during the oil boom of the mid-1970s. However, an important difference is that the 1970s oil revenue windfall was just that: a lucky and unforeseen financial boon. In contrast, the current fiscal space has been achieved as a direct result of sound and carefully thought through government policy decisions.

However, while Indonesia has made tremendous progress in freeing up financial resources for its development needs, and this situation is set to continue in the newt few years, subsidies continue to place a heavy burden on the government’s budget. The 2005 reductions on subsidies notwithstanding, total subsidies still accounted for some US$10 billion in government spending in 2006, or a significant 15 percent of the total budget.[34]

Thanks to the decision of the Habibie government (May 1998 to August 2001) to decentralize power across the country in 2001, increasingly high shares of government spending are being channeled through sub-national governments. As a result, provincial and district governments in Indonesia now spend 37 percent of total public funds, which represents a level of fiscal decentralization that is even higher than the OECD average.

Given the level of decentralization that has occurred in Indonesia and the fiscal space now available, the Indonesian government has a unique opportunity to revamp the country’s neglected public services. If carefully managed, this could allow the lagging regions of eastern Indonesian to catch up with other more affluent areas of the country in terms of social indicators. It could also enable Indonesian to focus on the next generation of reforms, namely improving quality of public services and targeted infrastructure provision. In effect, the correct allocation of public funds and the careful management of those funds once they have been allocated have become the main issues for public spending in Indonesia going forward.

For example, while education spending has now reached 17.2 percent of total public spending ─ the highest share of any sector and a share of 3.9 percent of GDP in 2006, compared with only 2.0 percent of GDP in 2001 ─ in contrast total public health spending remains below 1.0 percent of GDP.[35] Meanwhile, public infrastructure investment has still not fully recovered from its post-crisis lows and remains at only 3.4 percent of GDP.[36] One other area of concern is that the current level of expenditure on administration is excessively high. Standing at 15 percent in 2006, this suggests a significant waste of public resources.[37]

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