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Freedom
By concept
Philosophical freedom Political freedom Liberty Self-ownership Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1241x1022, 171 KB) Same image in much smaller size is found at Image:Liberty Leading the People. ... Mohandas K. Gandhi - Freedom can be achieved through inner sovereignty. ... Political freedom is the right, or the capacity, of self-determination as an expression of the individual will. ... The Statue of Liberty is a very popular icon of liberty. ... Self-ownership is the condition where an individual has the exclusive moral or legal right to control his or her own body and life. ...
By form
Assembly Association Body: clothing, modifying From government Movement Press Religion and beliefs Software Speech (international) Thought Freedom of assembly is the freedom to associate with, or organize any groups, gatherings, clubs, or organizations that one wishes. ... Freedom of association is the right enjoyed by free adults to mutually choose their associates for whatever purposes they see fit. ... Bredene nude beach in Belgium. ... Morphological freedom is, according to neuroscientist Anders Sandberg, an extension of one’s right to one’s body, not just self-ownership but also the right to modify oneself according to one’s desires. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Freedom of movement is a human rights concept which is respected in the constitutions of numerous Western states. ... It has been suggested that Religious toleration be merged into this article or section. ... This article is about free software as defined by the sociopolitical free software movement; for information on software distributed without charge, see freeware. ... A public anti-war demonstration in Liverpool, England Freedom of speech is the concept of being able to speak freely without censorship. ... Freedom of speech is enshrined in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and is granted formal recognition by the laws of most nations. ... Freedom of thought (also called freedom of conscience and freedom of ideas) is the freedom of an individual to hold or consider a fact, viewpoint, or thought, regardless of anyone elses view. ...
Other
Censorship Coercion Human rights Indicies Media transparency Negative liberty Positive liberty The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Coercion is the practice of compelling a person to act by employing threat of harm (usually physical force, sometimes other forms of harm). ... Human rights are rights which some hold to be inalienable and belonging to all humans. ... There are several non-governmental organizations that publish and maintain assessments of the state of freedom in the world and rank countries as being free, partly free, or unfree using various measures of freedom, including political rights, economic rights, and civil liberties. ... Media Transparency is the concept of determining how and why information is conveyed through various means. ... The philosophical concept of negative liberty refers to an individuals liberty from being subjected to the authority of others. ... Positive liberty is an idea that was first expressed and analyzed as a separate conception of liberty by John Stuart Mill but most notably described by Isaiah Berlin. ...

Freedom of the press (or press freedom) is the guarantee by a government of free public press for its citizens and their associations, extended to members of news gathering organizations, and their published reporting. It also extends to news gathering, and processes involved in obtaining information for public distribution. In the U.S. this right is guaranteed by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Not all countries are protected by a bill of rights or the constitution pertaining to Freedom of the Press. For example, Australians have nothing in their constitution nor a bill or rights that suggests anything to do with Freedom of the Press. Freedom of speech is the right to freely say what one pleases, as well as the related right to hear what others have stated. ... The word citizen may refer to: A person with a citizenship Citizen Watch Co. ... Freedom of association is the right enjoyed by free adults to mutually choose their associates for whatever purposes they see fit. ... News is new information or current events. ... Journalism is a discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying, and presenting news regarding current events, trends, issues and people. ... The First Amendment to the United States Constitution is a part of the United States Bill of Rights. ...

With respect to governmental information, a government distinguishes which materials are public or protected from disclosure to the public based on classification of information as sensitive, classified or secret and being otherwise protected from disclosure due to relevance of the information to protecting the national interest. Many governments are also subject to sunshine laws or freedom of information legislation that are used to define the ambit of national interest. A typical classified document. ... The national interest, often referred to by the French term raison détat, is a countrys goals and ambitions whether economic, military, or cultural. ... Over sixty one countries around the world have implemented some form of freedom of information legislation, which sets rules on governmental secrecy. ...

Basic principles and criteria

In developed countries, freedom of the press implies that all people should have the right to express themselves in writing or in any other way of expression of personal opinion or creativity. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights indicates: "Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas through any media regardless of frontiers" Coloured world map indicating Human Development Index (as of 2003). ... Wikisource has original text related to this article: Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (also UDHR) is a declaration adopted by the United Nations General Assembly (A/RES/217, December 10, 1948 at Palais de Chaillot, Paris), outlining the organizations view on the human...

This philosophy is usually accompanied by legislation ensuring various degrees of freedom of scientific research (known as scientific freedom), publishing, press and printing the depth to which these laws are entrenched in a country's legal system can go as far down as its constitution. The concept of freedom of speech is often covered by the same laws as freedom of the press, thereby giving equal treatment to media and individuals. Bold textJAMES CHECKLEY Legislation (or statutory law) is law which has been promulgated (or enacted) by a legislature or other governing body. ... A scientific method or process is considered fundamental to the scientific investigation and acquisition of new knowledge based upon physical evidence. ... A public anti-war demonstration in Liverpool, England Freedom of speech is the concept of being able to speak freely without censorship. ...

Besides said legal environment, some non-governmental organizations use more criteria to judge the level of press freedom around the world. Reporters Without Borders considers the number of journalists murdered, expelled or harassed, and the existence of a state monopoly on TV and radio, as well as the existence of censorship and self-censorship in the media, and the overall independence of media as well as the difficulties that foreign reporters may face. Freedom House likewise studies the more general political and economic environments of each nation in order to determine whether there exist relationships of dependence that limit in practice the level of press freedom that might exist in theory. So the concept of independence of the press is one closely linked with the concept of press freedom. A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a non-profit group or association that acts outside of institutionalized political structures and pursues matters of interest to its members by lobbying, persuasion, or direct action. ... Reporters Without Borders, or RWB (French: Reporters sans frontières, Spanish: Reporteros Sin Fronteras, or RSF) is an international non-governmental organisation doing research on and advocating for freedom of the press. ... This map reflects the findings of Freedom Houses 2006 survey Freedom in the World, concerning the state of world freedom in 2005. ...

The media as the fourth branch of government

The notion of the press as the fourth branch of government is sometimes used to compare the press (or media) with Montesquieu's three branches of government, namely an addition to the , the executive and the judiciary branches. Edmund Burke is quoted to have said: "Three Estates in Parliament; but in the Reportpooopers' Gallery yonder, there sat a Fourth estate more important far than they all". Montesquieu can refer to: Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu Several communes of France: Montesquieu, in the Hérault département Montesquieu, in the Lot-et-Garonne département Montesquieu, in the Tarn-et-Garonne département This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages... Edmund Burke (January 12, 1729 – July 9, 1797) was an Anglo-Irish statesman, author, orator, political theorist, and philosopher, who served for many years in the British House of Commons as a member of the Whig party. ... A reporter The term Fourth Estate refers to the press, both in its explicit capacity of advocacy and in its implicit ability to frame political issues. ...

The development of the Western media tradition is rather parallel to the development of democracy in Europe and the United States. On the ideological level, the first advocates of freedom of the press were the liberal thinkers of the 18th and 19th centuries.They developed their ideas in opposition to the monarchist tradition in general and the divine right of kings in particular. These liberal theorists argued that freedom of expression was a right claimed by the individual and grounded in natural law. Thus, freedom of the press was an integral part of the individual rights promoted by liberal ideology (see the History section below). An ideology is an organized collection of ideas. ... Liberalism is an ideology, philosophical view, and political tradition which holds that liberty is the primary political value. ... Places where monarchies maintain rule appear in blue. ... The Divine Right of Kings is a European political and religious doctrine of political absolutism. ... It has been suggested that Law of nature (precept) be merged into this article or section. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

Freedom of the press was (and still is) assumed by many to be a necessity to any democratic society. Other lines of thought later argued in favor of freedom of the press without relying on the controversial issue of natural law; for instance, freedom of expression began to be regarded as an essential component of the social contract (the agreement between a state and its people regarding the rights and duties that each should have to the other). Social contract theory (or contractarianism) is a concept used in philosophy, political science, and sociology to denote an implicit agreement within a state regarding the rights and responsibilities of the state and its citizens, or more generally a similar concord between a group and its members, or between individuals. ...

Status of press freedom worldwide

Worldwide press freedom index

Every year, the Reporters Without Borders organization establishes a ranking of countries in terms of their freedom of the press. The list is based on responses to surveys sent to journalists that are members of partner organisations of the RWB, as well as related specialists such as researchers, jurists and human rights activists. The survey asks questions about direct attacks on journalists and the media as well as other indirect sources of pressure against the free press, such as pressure on journalists by non-governmental groups. RWB is careful to note that the index only deals with press freedom, and does not measure the quality of journalism. Reporters Without Borders, or RWB (French: Reporters sans frontières, Spanish: Reporteros Sin Fronteras, or RSF) is an international non-governmental organisation doing research on and advocating for freedom of the press. ...

In 2003, the countries where press was the most free were Finland, Iceland, the Netherlands and Norway. 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

In 2004, apart from the above countries, Denmark, Ireland, Slovakia, and Switzerland were tied at the top of the list, followed by New Zealand and Latvia. The countries with the least degree of press freedom were ranked with North Korea having the worst, followed by Burma, Turkmenistan, Eritrea, China, Vietnam, Nepal, Saudi Arabia, and Iran. 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Non-democratic states

According to Reporters Without Borders, more than a third of the world's people live in countries where there is no press freedom. Overwhelmingly, these people live in countries where there is no system of democracy or where there are serious deficiencies in the democratic process. Reporters Without Borders, or RWB (French: Reporters sans frontières, Spanish: Reporteros Sin Fronteras, or RSF) is an international non-governmental organisation doing research on and advocating for freedom of the press. ...

Freedom of the press is an extremely problematic concept for most non-democratic systems of government since, in the modern age, strict control of access to information is critical to the existence of most non-democratic governments and their associated control systems and security apparatus. To this end, most non-democratic societies employ state-run news organisations to promote the propaganda critical to maintaining an existing political power base and suppress (often very brutally, through the use of police, military, or intelligence agencies) any significant attempts by the media or individual journalists to challenge the approved "government line" on contentious issues. In such countries, journalists operating on the fringes of what is deemed to be acceptable will very often find themselves the subject of considerable intimidation by agents of the state. This can range from simple threats to their professional careers (firing, professional blacklisting) to death threats, kidnapping, torture, and assassination. A blacklist is a list or register of entities who, for one reason or another, are being denied a particular privilege, service, or mobility. ... This article may not be written in the formal tone expected of an encyclopedia entry. ... Torture is any act by which severe pain, whether physical or psychological, is intentionally inflicted on a person as a means of intimidation, deterrence, revenge, punishment, sadism, or information gathering. ... Assassination is the deliberate killing of an important person, usually a political figure or other strategically important individual. ...

Reporters Without Borders reports that, in 2003, 42 journalists lost their lives pursuing their profession and that, in the same year, at least 130 journalists were in prison as a result of their occupational activities. 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

In 2005, 63 journalists and 5 media assistants were killed worldwide.

• The Lira Baysetova case in Kazakhstan.

• In Nepal, Eritrea and China, journalists may spend years in jail simply for using the "wrong" word or photo. ^[1]

• The Georgiy R. Gongadze case in Ukraine.

Lira Baysetova is the former editor of the weekly Respublika newspaper of Kazakhstan. ... Georgiy R. Gongadze Georgiy Ruslanovich Gongadze (Ukrainian: , May 21, 1969 – September 2000?) was a Ukrainian journalist kidnapped and murdered in 2000. ...

History

England

The English revolution of 1688 resulted in the supremacy of Parliament over the Crown and, above all, the right of revolution. The main theoretical inspirator of Western liberalism was John Locke. Having decided to grant some of his basic freedoms in the state of nature (natural rights) to the common good, the individual placed some of his rights in trusteeship with the government. A social contract was entered into by the people, and the Sovereign (i. e. government) was instructed to protect these individual rights on behalf of the people, argues John Locke in his book Two Treatises of Government. The Glorious Revolution was the overthrow of James II of England in 1688 by a union of Parliamentarians and the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). ... John Locke (August 29, 1632 – October 28, 1704) was an influential English philosopher. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ...

Until 1694, England had an elaborate system of licensing. No publication was allowed without the accompaniment of a government-granted license. Fifty years earlier, at a time of civil war, John Milton wrote his pamphlet Areopagitica. In this work Milton argued forcefully against this form of government censorship and parodied the idea, writing "when as debtors and delinquents may walk abroad without a keeper, but unoffensive books must not stir forth without a visible jailer in their title." Although at the time it did little to halt the practice of licensing it would be viewed later a significant milestone in press freedom. Events February 6 - The colony Quilombo dos Palmares is destroyed. ... Motto: (French for God and my right) Anthem: Multiple unofficial anthems Capital London Largest city London Official language(s) English Government Constitutional monarchy  - Queen Queen Elizabeth II  - Prime Minister Tony Blair MP Unification    - by Athelstan AD927  Area    - Total 130,395 km² (1st in UK)   50,346 sq mi   - Water (%) Population... The English Civil War was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651. ... John Milton, English poet John Milton (December 9, 1608 – November 8, 1674) was an English poet, best-known for his epic poem Paradise Lost. ... Polish soldiers reading a German leaflet during the Warsaw Uprising A pamphlet is an unbound booklet (that is, without a hard cover or binding). ... Areopagitica: A speech of Mr John Milton for the liberty of unlicenced printing to the Parliament of England is a prose tract or polemic by John Milton, published November 23, 1644, at the height of the English Civil War. ...

Milton's central argument was that the individual is capable of using reason and distinguishing right from wrong, good from bad. In order to be able to exercise this ration right, the individual must have unlimited access to the ideas of his fellow men in “a free and open encounter”. From Milton’s writings developed the concept of “the open market place of ideas”: When people argue against each other, the good arguments will prevail. One form of speech that was widely restricted in England was the law of seditious libel that made criticizing of the government a crime. The King was above public criticism and that statements critical of the government were forbidden, according to the English Court of the Star Chamber. Truth was not a defense to seditious libel because the goal was to prevent and punish all condemnation of the government. The Star Chamber was an English court of law at the royal Palace of Westminster that began sessions in 1487 and ended them in 1641 when the court itself was abolished. ...

John Stuart Mill approached the problem of authority versus liberty from the viewpoint of a 19th century utilitarian: The individual has the right of expressing himself so long as he does not harm other individuals. The good society is one in which the greatest number of persons enjoy the greatest possible amount of happiness. Applying these general principles of liberty to freedom of expression, Mill states that if we silence an opinion, we may silence the truth. The individual freedom of expression is therefore essential to the well-being of society. John Stuart Mill (May 20, 1806 – May 8, 1873), an English philosopher and political economist, was an influential liberal and socialist thinker of the 19th century. ... Utilitarianism is a suggested theoretical framework for morality, law and politics, based on quantitative maximisation of some definition of utility for society or humanity. ...

Mill’s application of the general principles of liberty is expressed in his book On Liberty: "If all mankind minus one, were of one opinion, and one, and only one person were of the contrary opinion, mankind would be no more justified in silencing that one person, than he, if he had the power, would be justified in silencing mankind". On Liberty is a philosophical work in the English language by 19th century philosopher John Stuart Mill, first published in 1859. ...

Nazi Germany

Nazi propaganda was used to glorify Adolf Hitler and stifle dissenting viewpoints.

The dictatorship of Adolf Hitler largely suppressed freedom of the press through Joseph Goebbels' Propaganda Ministry. As the Ministry's name implies, propaganda did not carry the negative connotations that it does today (or did in the Allied countries); how-to manuals were openly distributed by that same ministry explaining the craft of effective propaganda. The Ministry also acted as a central control-point for all media, issuing orders as to what stories could be run and what stories would be suppressed. Anyone involved in the film industry -- from directors to the lowliest assistant -- had to sign an oath of loyalty to the Nazi Party, due to opinion-changing power Goebbels perceived movies to have. (Goebbels himself maintained some personal control over every single film made in Nazi Europe.) Journalists who crossed the Propaganda Ministry were routinely imprisoned or shot as traitors. Image File history File links Dove. ... Image File history File links Dove. ... Hitler redirects here. ... Joseph Goebbels (October 29, 1897 – May 1, 1945) was Adolf Hitlers Propaganda Minister (see Propagandaministerium) in Nazi Germany. ...

India

In the Indian Constitution the word "press" is not mentioned. The press in India derives its freedom as an interpretation of the Article 19(1)(a) of the Constitution which states: "All citizens have the right to freedom of speech and expression". The Constitution of India, the worlds lengthiest written constitution (with 395 articles and 8 schedules) was passed by the Constituent Assembly on November 26, 1949. ...

However this Article has a subclause (2) which states down restrictions under which the freedom guaranteed by Article 19(1)(a) can be revoked. Article 19(2) states that this right can be restricted only by law or by the State for reasons of: "sovereignty and integrity of India, the security of the State, friendly relations with foreign States, public order, preserving decency, preserving morality, in relation to contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to an offence". A state is a set of institutions that possess the authority to make the rules that govern a society, having internal and external sovereignty over a definite territory. ... Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political (e. ... In English and American law, and systems based on them, libel and slander are two forms of defamation (or defamation of character), which is the tort or delict of making a false statement of fact that injures someones reputation. ...

Many laws have been used to curb the freedom of the press in India. Some of the more severe laws are the Official Secrets Act and Prevention of Terrorism Act (PoTA). Under PoTA any person could be arrested and put into indefinite undisclosed detention by the police or the Army, if they felt that the person had been in contact with a terrorist or terrorist group and could be a danger to the state's security. This prevented journalists from using their full range of sources, and compelled them to use safer sources such as government officials, which reduced the efficiency of the press dramatically. PoTA has been now abolished by the recently elected United Progressive Alliance government. The Official Secrets Act is any of several Acts of the United Kingdom Parliament for the protection of official information, mainly related to national security. ... Prevention of Terrorism Act could refer to two different sets of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom the Prevention of Terrorism Acts passed between 1974 and 1989 to deal with Northern Ireland terrorism the Prevention of Terrorism Act 2005 It also could refer to the Prevention of Terrorism Act...

United States

Main article: Freedom of speech in the United States

John Hancock was the first person to write newspapers in the British colonies in North America were published "by authority," that is, under license from and as the mouthpiece of the colonial governors. The first regularly published newspaper was the Boston News-Letter of John Campbell, published weekly beginning in 1704. The early colonial publishers were either postmasters or government printers, and therefore unlikely to challenge government policies. Citizens of the United States often treat free speech as a fundamental right and often a matter of patriotism. ... The British Empire in 1897, marked in pink, the traditional colour for Imperial British dominions on maps. ... World map showing North America A satellite composite image of North America. ... Events Building of the Students Monument in Aiud, Romania. ...

The first independent newspaper in the colonies was the New-England Courant, published in Boston by James Franklin beginning in 1721. A few years later, Franklin's younger brother, Benjamin, purchased the Pennsylvania Gazette of Philadelphia, which became the leading newspaper of the colonial era. Boston is a town and small port c. ... // Events Pope Innocent XIII becomes pope Johann Sebastian Bach composes the Brandenburg Concertos April 4 - Robert Walpole becomes the first prime minister of Britain September 10 - Treaty of Nystad is signed, bringing an end to the Great Northern War November 2 - Peter I is proclaimed Emperor of All the Russias... Benjamin Franklin (January 17 [O.S. January 6] 1706 – April 17, 1790) was one of the most well known Founding Fathers of the United States. ... The Pennsylvania Gazette may be: The Pennsylvania Gazette (newspaper), the colonial American newspaper published from 1723 to 1800, made famous by Benjamin Franklin; or The Pennsylvania Gazette (newsletter), a newsletter published by the University of Pennsylvania Alumni Society six times per year. ... Philadelphia is a village located in Jefferson County, New York. ...

During this period, newspapers were unlicensed, and able freely to publish dissenting views, but were subject to prosecution for libel or even sedition if their opinions threatened the government. The notion of "freedom of the press" that later was enshrined in the United States Constitution is generally traced to the seditious libel prosecution of John Peter Zenger by the colonial governor of New York in 1735. In this instance of jury nullification, Zenger was acquitted after his lawyer, Andrew Hamilton, argued to the jury (contrary to established English law) that there was no libel in publishing the truth. Yet even after this celebrated case, colonial governors and assemblies asserted the power to prosecute and even imprison printers for publishing unapproved views. In English and American law, and systems based on them, libel and slander are two forms of defamation (or defamation of character), which is the tort or delict of making a false statement of fact that injures someones reputation. ... Sedition is a deprecated term of law to refer to covert conduct such as speech and organization that is deemed by the legal authority as tending toward insurrection against the established order. ... The United States Constitution is the supreme law of the United States of America. ... John Peter Zenger (October 26, 1697 - July 28, 1746) was a printer, publisher, editor and journalist whose indictment, trial and acquittal on sedition and libel charges (against the then Governor William Cosby of the New York Colony) in 1734 was an important contributing factor to the development of the freedom... Official language(s) English de facto Capital Albany Largest city New York City Area  Ranked 27th  - Total 54,520 sq mi (141,205 km²)  - Width 285 miles (455 km)  - Length 330 miles (530 km)  - % water 13. ... Events April 16 - The London premiere of Alcina by George Frideric Handel, his first the first Italian opera for the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden. ... Jury nullification is a jurys refusal to render a verdict according to the law, as instructed by the court, regardless of the weight of evidence presented. ... This page is about a famous lawyer; see Andrew Hamilton (disambiguation) for other meanings. ...

A U.S. Postage Stamp commemorating freedom of the press.

During the American Revolution, a free press was identified by Revolutionary leaders as one of the elements of liberty that they sought to preserve. The Virginia Declaration of Rights (1776) proclaimed that "the freedom of the press is one of the greatest bulwarks of liberty and can never be restrained but by despotic governments." Similarly, the Constitution of Massachusetts (1780) declared, "The liberty of the press is essential to the security of freedom in a state: it ought not, therefore, to be restrained in this commonwealth." Following these examples, the First Amendment to the United States Constitution restricted Congress from abridging the freedom of the press and the closely associated freedom of speech. Image File history File linksMetadata Freedomofthepressstamp. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Freedomofthepressstamp. ... 48-star flag, 1957 This is a survey of the postage stamps and postal history of the United States. ... The American Revolution was a political movement that ended British control of the south-eastern coastal area of North America, resulting in the formation of the United States of America in 1776 and sparking the American Revolutionary War. ... The Virginia Declaration of Rights is a declaration by the Virginia Convention of Delegates of rights of individuals and a call for independence from Britain. ... This article is about the year 1776. ... The Constitution of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the fundamental governing document of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. ... 1780 was a leap year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... The First Amendment to the United States Constitution is a part of the United States Bill of Rights. ... A public anti-war demonstration in Liverpool, England Freedom of speech is the concept of being able to speak freely without censorship. ...

John Locke’s ideas had inspired both the French and American revolutions. Thomas Jefferson wanted to unite the two streams of liberalism, the English and the French schools of thought. His goal was to create a government that would provide both security and opportunity for the individual. An active press was essential as a way of educating the population. In order to be able to work freely, the press must be free from control by the state. Jefferson was a person who himself suffered great calumnies of the press. Despite this, in his second inaugural address, he proclaimed that a government that could not stand up under criticism deserved to fall. Thomas Jefferson(April 13, 1743 N.S. – July 4, 1826) was the third President of the United States (1801–1809), principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and an influential founder of the United States. ...

Jefferson said: "No experiment can be more interesting than that we are now trying, and which we trust will end in establishing the fact, that man may be governed by reason and truth. Our first object should therefore be, to leave open to him all avenues of the truth".

In 1931, the U.S. Supreme Court decision in Near v. Minnesota used the 14th Amendment to apply the freedom of the press to the States. Other notable cases regarding free press are: The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C., (large image) The Supreme Court of the United States, located in Washington, D.C., is the highest court (see supreme court) in the United States; that is, it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States... Holding A Minnesota law that imposed permanent injunctions against the publication of newspapers with malicious, scandalous, and defamatory content violated the First Amendment, as applied to the states by the Fourteenth. ... The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is one of the post-Civil War amendments and it includes the Due Process and Equal Protection Clauses. ...

• New York Times Co. v. United States: The Supreme Court upheld the publication of the Pentagon Papers.
• New York Times Co. v. Sullivan: The Court decided that in order for written words to be libel, it must be, first of all, false. It must also be published with the deliberate intent to ruin someone's reputation.

In Branzburg v. Hayes (1972), the Court placed limits on the ability of the Press to refuse a subpoena from a Grand Jury by claiming Freedom of the Press. The issue decided in the case was whether a reporter could refuse to "appear and testify before state and Federal grand juries" by claiming such appearance and testimony "abridges the freedom of speech and press guaranteed by the First Amendment." The 5-4 decision was that such a protection was not provided by the First Amendment. New York Times Co. ... The Pentagon Papers is the colloquial term for United States-Vietnam Relations, 1945-1967: A Study Prepared by the Department of Defense, a 47 volume, 7,000-page, top-secret United States Department of Defense history of the United States political and military involvement in the Vietnam War from 1945... Holding The First Amendment, as applied through the Fourteenth, protected a newspaper from being sued for libel in state court for making false defamatory statements about the official conduct of a public official, because the statements were not made with knowing or reckless disregard for the truth. ... Branzburg v. ... 1972 (MCMLXXII) was a leap year starting on Saturday. ... A subpoena is a writ commanding a person to appear under penalty (from Latin). ... A grand jury is a type of jury, in the common law legal system, which determines if there is enough evidence for a trial. ...

Notable exceptions

• In 1798, not long after the adoption of the Constitution, the governing Federalist Party attempted to stifle criticism by means of the Alien and Sedition Acts. (It was notable that the Sedition Act made criticism of Congress, and of the President, a crime, but not criticism of the Vice-President. Jefferson, a non-Federalist, was Vice-President at the time the Act was passed.) These restrictions on freedom of the press proved very unpopular and worked against the Federalists. Thomas Jefferson was among those who opposed the Acts, and he was elected President in the election of 1800. Jefferson then pardoned all those convicted under the Acts. He made it a principle not to ask what they had done, but only whether they had been charged under the Acts.

  In his first Inaugural Address in 1801 he reiterated his longstanding commitment to freedom of speech and of the press: "If there be any among us who would wish to dissolve this Union or to change its republican form, let them stand undisturbed as monuments of the safety with which error of opinion may be tolerated where reason is left free to combat it." 1798 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... ... The Alien and Sedition Acts were acts of Congress passed during the administration of President John Adams; his signature made them into law on July 14, 1798. ... Thomas Jefferson(April 13, 1743 N.S. – July 4, 1826) was the third President of the United States (1801–1809), principal author of the Declaration of Independence (1776), and an influential founder of the United States. ... Presidential electoral votes by state. ... The Union Jack, flag of the newly formed United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. ...

• The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918, which amended it, imposed restrictions on the free press during wartime. It carried fines of $10,000 and up to 20 years imprisonment for people publishing "... disloyal, profane, scurrilous, or abusive language about the form of government of the United States or the Constitution of the United States, or the military or naval forces of the United States ..." In Schenck v. United States (1919), the Supreme Court upheld the laws, setting the "Clear and present danger" standard. Congress repealed both laws in 1921, and Brandenburg v. Ohio (1969) revised the "Clear and present danger" test to the "Imminent lawless action" test, which is less restrictive.

• 1988: Hazelwood School District vs. Kuhlmeier: The Supreme Court upheld that the principal of a school has the right to review and block controversial articles of a school paper funded by the school and published in the school's name.

• In the United States in 2005, interpretation of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act may consider political statements as being the equivalent of campaign donations. Because access to Internet statements are weakly controlled, the campaign value of statements is not known in advance and a high ultimate value may trigger large fines for violations. This particularly threatens Internet statements by individuals, and ambiguous definitions of membership in the press make the possible effects ambiguous.

The Espionage Act of 1917 was a United States federal law passed shortly after entering World War I, which made it a crime for a person to convey information with intent to interfere with the operation or success of the armed forces of the United States or to promote the... The Sedition Act of 1918 was an amendment to the Espionage Act of 1917. ... Holding Defendants criticism of the draft was not protected by the First Amendment, because it created a clear and present danger to the enlistment and recruiting practices of the U.S. armed forces during a state of war. ... Clear and present danger is a term used in the case Schenck v. ... Holding Ohios criminal syndicalism statute violated the First Amendment, as applied to the state through the Fourteenth, because it broadly prohibited the mere advocacy of violence rather than the constitutionally unprotected incitement to imminent lawless action. ... Imminent lawless action is a term used in the United States Supreme Court case Brandenburg v. ... 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Hazelwood School District et al. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA) is U.S. Congressional legislation which regulates the financing of political campaigns. ...

Implications of new technologies

Many of the traditional means of delivering information are being slowly superseded by the increasing pace of modern technological advance. Almost every conventional mode of media and information dissemination has a modern counterpart that offers significant potential advantages to journalists seeking to maintain and enhance their 'freedom of speech'. A few simple examples of such phenomena include:

• Terrestrial television versus satellite television: Whilst terrestrial television is relatively easy to manage and manipulate, satellite television is much more difficult to control as journalistic content can easily be broadcast from other jurisdictions beyond the control of individual governments. An example of this in the Middle East is the satellite broadcaster Al Jazeera. This Arabic language media channel operates out of the 'relatively liberal' state of Qatar, and often presents views and content that are problematic to a number of governments in the region and beyond. However, because of the increased affordability and miniaturisation of satellite technology (e.g. dishes and receivers) it is simply not practicable for most states to control popular access to the channel.
• Web-based publishing (e.g., blogging) vs. traditional publishing: Traditional magazines and newspapers rely on physical resources (e.g. offices, printing presses) that can easily be targeted and forced to close down. Web-based publishing systems can be run using ubiquitous and inexpensive equipment and can operate from any global jurisdiction, to get control over web publications, nations and organisations, are using Geolocation and Geolocation software.

• Voice over Internet protocol (VOIP) vs. conventional telephony: Although conventional telephony systems are easily tapped and recorded, modern VOIP technology can employ sophisticated encryption systems to evade central monitoring systems. As VOIP and similar technologies become more widespread they are likely to make the effective monitoring of journalists (and their contacts and activities) a very difficult task for governments.

Naturally, governments are responding to the challenges posed by new media technologies by deploying increasingly sophisticated technology of their own (a notable example being China's attempts to impose control of through a state run internet service provider that controls access to the Internet) but it seems that this will becomes an ever increasingly difficult task as nimble, highly motivated journalists continue to find ingenious novel ways to exploit technology and stay one step ahead of the generally slower moving government institutions that they necessarily do battle with. Terrestrial television (also known as over-the-air, OTA, or broadcast television) is the traditional method of television broadcast signal delivery, by radio waves transmitted through open space, usually carrying unencrypted signals. ... Artists impression of a Boeing 601 satellite, as configured for digital television transmission by SES Astra Satellite television is television delivered by way of communications satellites, as compared to conventional terrestrial television and cable television. ... Al Jazeera logo Al Jazeera (الجزيرة), meaning The Island or The (Arabian) Peninsula (whence also Algiers) is an Arabic television channel based in Qatar. ... It has been suggested that Online diary be merged into this article or section. ... This article is concerned with the production of books, magazines, and other literary material (whether in printed or electronic formats). ... Geolocation is the science of determining the real-world geographic location of a website visitor by tracking his Internet Protocol address and other factors. ... In computing, geolocation software is used to deduce the geographic location of the other party in a message exchange, for example on the Internet. ... IP Telephony, also called Internet telephony, is the technology that makes it possible to have a telephone conversation over the Internet or a dedicated Internet Protocol (IP) network instead of dedicated voice transmission lines. ... In telecommunication, Telephony encompasses the general use of equipment to provide voice communication over distances. ... An internet service provider (abbr. ...

See also

• Media transparency
• List of indices of freedom
• Gag order
• Censorship
  • Censorship in cyberspace
• First Amendment to the United States Constitution
• Freedom of speech
• Journalistic standards
• Libel
• International Freedom of Expression Exchange — “The largest online archive of information on press freedom violations”, dating back to 1995 and covering more than 120 countries.
• Canadian Journalists for Free Expression
• Muckraker
• Prior restraint
• Free press
• World Press Freedom Day on May 3
• Declaration of Windhoek (1991)
• Tunisia Monitoring Group

Media Transparency is the concept of determining how and why information is conveyed through various means. ... There are several non-governmental organizations that publish and maintain assessments of the state of freedom in the world and rank countries as being free, partly free, or unfree using various measures of freedom, including political rights, economic rights, and civil liberties. ... A gag order is an order, sometimes a legal order by a court or government, other times a private order by an employer or other institution, restricting information or comment from being made public. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... Censorship in cyberspace is often treated as a separate issue from censorship of offline material, but the legal issues are similar. ... The First Amendment to the United States Constitution is a part of the United States Bill of Rights. ... A public anti-war demonstration in Liverpool, England Freedom of speech is the concept of being able to speak freely without censorship. ... Journalistic standards or journalism ethics, include principles of ethics and of good practice to address the specific challenges faced by professional journalists. ... In English and American law, and systems based on them, libel and slander are two forms of defamation (or defamation of character), which is the tort or delict of making a false statement of fact that injures someones reputation. ... International Freedom of Expression eXchange. ... Canadian Journalists for Free Expression (CJFE) is a Canadian non-governmental organization supported by Canadian journalists and advocates of free expression. ... McClures Magazine (cover, Jan, 1901) published many early muckraker articles. ... Prior restraint is a legal term referring to a governments actions that prevent materials from being published. ... In the modern age, the free press has taken on multiple meanings. ... World Press Freedom Day honours sacrifices around the world made for freedom of the press and reminds governments of their duty to respect and uphold the right to freedom of expression that is enshrined under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. ... May 3 is the 123rd day of the year in the Gregorian calendar (124th in leap years). ... The Declaration of Windhoek is a statement of free press principles put together by African journalists in 1991. ... 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The Tunisia Monitoring Group (TMG) is a coalition of 15 free expression organisations that belong to the International Freedom of Expression Exchange (IFEX), a global network of non-governmental organisations that promotes and defends the right to freedom of expression and freedom of the press. ...

Notes

1. ^ http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=280 About Reporters Without Borders

Reporters Without Borders, or RWB (French: Reporters sans frontières, Spanish: Reporteros Sin Fronteras, or RSF) is an international non-governmental organisation doing research on and advocating for freedom of the press. ...

References

• Starr, Paul (2004). The Creation of the Media: Political Origins of Modern Communications. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-08193-2.

External links

• the ACTivist Magazine
• COA News
• Press Freedom
• MANA - the Media Alliance for New Activism
• International Freedom of Expression Exchange- Monitors press freedom around the world
• IPS Inter Press Service Independent news on press freedom around the world
• Media Helping Media A discussion area about independent media in transition and post-conflict states.
• The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press
• Reporters Without Borders