Introduction

Educational leadership is leadership in formal educational settings. As is the case with other varieties of leadership, educational leadership draws upon the ever-growing body of interdisciplinary literature on the subject of leadership, generally, but ideally distinguishes itself through its focus on foundational principles of pedagogy—including philosophical questions of epistemology and human development. For a variety of reasons, however, educational leadership in contemporary practice borrows heavily from at times ill-fitting or inappropriate models of leadership derived from political science and business. Much debate within the field focuses on this frequently uncoupled theory of educational leadership and practice of educational leadership. Leadership can refer both to the process of leading, and to those entities that do the leading. ...

The accountability movement in education has fueled increased interest in leadership models as they pertain to classrooms, schools, and school districts (Leithwood & Riehl, 2003; Mulford & Silins, 2004). If we improve the leadership abilities of our teachers and administrators, will it result in better educated students? Can we train individuals as leaders, and will it affect desired outcomes, or are leaders "born, not made?" Can a leader be effective leading any school, or is it first necessary to match the leader with the school? If so, what are the characteristics of each that are important in arriving at a satisfactory match? Categories: Stub | Education ... school, see School (disambiguation). ... School Districts are a form of Special-purpose district in the United States which serves to operate the local public primary, middle, and secondary schools. ... Teachers can mean: Teachers (TV series), a British comedy drama Teachers (film), a 1984 film a brand of whiskey See also: Teacher. ... Administrators are Wikipedians who have sysop rights. Current Wikipedia policy is to grant this access liberally to anyone who has been an active Wikipedia contributor for a while and is generally a known and trusted member of the community. ...

Recent decades have seen the expansion of graduate programs in Educational Leadership, and more school districts are recognizing the value of advanced degrees in educational leadership for principals and administrators (Fife & Goodchile, 1991; Hoppe & Spech, 2003). These programs include courses in management, labor relations, and organizational theory, as well as leadership theory.

Educational leadership may be improved, not only by increasing the knowledge within the field, but—according to advocates of rational-accountability movements in education—perhaps also through collaboration with leaders in other types of organizations; for example, business.

Influence of Culture

Two overarching concerns of educational leadership scholars investigating the influence of culture are the practical and the theoretical. Improving schools, and thereby student learning, through improved understanding of cultural values and differences appears to be the purpose of the practical research. The theory building research however, concentrates on developing or clarifying a theoretical framework for studying cultural differences between and among countries.

The literature regarding the impact of culture as it is applied to educational leadership can also be viewed as falling into either the internal study or international study categories. The first category might be thought of as the study of cultural issues that exist within a school or organization. This category is composed of studies that explore the impacts of a student body composed of students from distinct and varied cultural backgrounds. The second category of studies is about international cultural issues. This group is composed of research investigating the impact of culture when individuals or organizations interact at the international level.

Webber and Robertson have been active scholars regarding international perspectives in educational leadership. In 2004 this is how Webber and Robertson described the effects of internationalization and the need for educational leaders to learn about other cultures. "the emergence of school communities comprised of populations that are diverse and mobile. Shields[2002] wrote about "communities of difference" in which educators should . . . negotiate the rules and customs that are unique to each school community. According to Beckett [2003], the co-creation of school culture with an internationalized community is necessary to facilitate student motivation for educational success. We should recognize that diversity and mobility have caused educational leaders to be less familiar with the cultural complexities of their school communities [Earl and Katz 2002]" (p. 265).

Pewewardy and Frey (2004) conducted an internal type of cultural study in which they sought to “assess similarities and differences in the racial attitudes between American Indian students and non-Indian students and (b) to determine whether American Indian students' satisfaction regarding student support services differed from that of non-Indian students” (p. 33). They investigated student perceptions of racial climate, multicultural support services, and ethnic fraud in a predominantly White state university. 409 undergraduate students completed the survey in the study. Based on self-reporting, the participants were divided into two groups; 30 American Indian students composed one group and 245 White students composed the other. The small sample size for American Indian students was representative of the total Native student population at the institution.

The survey results showed significant differences between the two groups in their perceptions about campus support services, multicultural courses, ethnic fraud issues and differences between races. American Indian students were more likely to see ethnic fraud as a problem that the institution should address. American Indian students had a stronger belief in the value of institutional support, support services, and multicultural courses than White students. Interestingly, American Indian students were more likely to believe that "ethnic minorities are not as motivated to succeed as Whites" (American Indian, 46.6%, White, 22.1%). Most America Indian students rejected notions of ethnic genetic superiority, but they were more likely to agree that "in general, African Americans are generally inferior to White Americans" (20.0% compared to 3.3%) and "in general, Whites are genetically inferior to Asians" (16.6% compared to 2.9%)(. Pewewardy & Frey, p. 46).

The authors suggest further research is needed regarding the role racism plays in influencing student success. Another area for investigation they suggest is ethnic fraud. Ethnic fraud issues are an interesting aspect of this study and the authors assert that this area of research has been neglected. Most post-secondary institutions have no guidelines determining who may be recognized as an American Indian and students self-identify as American Indian. Some do so fraudulently in the belief that it will help them get scholarships or improve their chances of admission to the institution. In addition to the legal and ethical issues this practice raises, it has implications for statistical tracking of Native American students for research purposes (Pewewardy & Frey, 2004, p. 39-40).

For an example of research involving an international experience with the impact of culture, one might look to Webber & Robertson’s work on the impact of international professional interaction. In their two-part study conducted in 2002, (2004) they looked at the relationship between international professional dialogue and educators' understanding of educational leadership issues. The study participants were two groups of graduate students, one at a conference in Canada who constituted the participants in the first part of the study, and the other at an institute in New Zealand who constituted the participants in part two. Using an instrument they designed in 2000, the Boundary-Breaking Leadership Development Model, Robertson and Webber guided the instructional design of the activities for international professional dialogue. Using grounded theory, data were gathered daily from the participants and then given back to them for comment and criticism.

The results of the study are three themes, which the authors identified as adding to the understanding of leadership learning. The three themes are 1) thinking critically about education from other perspectives, 2) a realization by participants that they are influenced by their cultural backgrounds, and 3) thinking about leadership in learning and for making positive changes in schools (Robertson & Webber, 2004, p. 267).

Another type of research regarding the influence of culture on educational leadership focuses more on theory and concepts than on practical applications. Leithwood and Duke (1998), for example, reviewed 121 articles published in four English language journals to identify leadership concepts. They then organized the twenty concepts they discovered into six categories: instructional, transformational, moral, participative, managerial, and contingent. They assert that the six categories comprise a framework that may be used for cross-cultural leadership studies in Western cultures. The questions for further research in this case might include assessing the literature of eastern or other cultures using the same methodology, investigating whether the meaning of each of the six categories would change in other cultural contexts, determining what specific form one of the models would assume in different cultures, or investigating the extent to which the categories reflect cultural values.

The need for outside sources of management

The importance of expanded learning is an idea that is frequently expressed in regards to children, however, school leaders could take a page from their own teachings. Looking beyond the walls of academia is vital if schools are to improve their methods in the classroom and in the school board.

Certainly managing a corporation differs from managing a school or even a school system, but much can be gained from the corroboration of knowledgeable leaders from all sectors of society.

In particular, school administrators can glean a wealth of hard-earned, real-world knowledge in the area of management from America's corporations.

A case in point is the results of a landmark study by William Ouchi, a professor at the UCLA school of management and renowned business consultant, that included over 200 schools in six major cities. The study showed that the educational outcomes of the school most directly pertain to the way in which the school is managed (Ouchi, 2003). William G. Ouchi (born 1943) is an American professor and author in the field of business management. ...

According to Ouchi (2003), effective management in the public schools begins at the district level. Researchers uncovered that schools that had the most consistently outstanding performance also had the management systems with the most decentralization. Principals were treated as entrepreneurs in control of their own school budgets and policies regarding hiring personnel, rather than putting all the authority in the central administrative office (Ouchi, 2003).

Ouchi (2003) theorizes that it is imperative that principals have final say in their own schools due to the nature of today's schools, which bring new and increasingly complex challenges on a daily basis. A principal from a centralized office is continually dealing with having "their hands tied" because they need clearance from the central office. A truly entrepreneurial principal can immediately attend to these day-to-day obstacles and solve them before they become too formidable (Ouchi, 2003).

This study by Ouchi (2003) exemplies but one of a myriad of management approaches to which education can avail itself and broaden their understanding of all facets of leadership.

The question concerning the ability to train leaders is partly answered by Fred Smith in his article about leadership qualities (1996). Smith discusses several different traits about a possible leader. This list includes:past experiences; ability to create and catch a vision; feel the thrill of a challenge;practicality of ideas; willingness to take responsibility; mental toughness; and the ability to get something done. Each of these areas have been covered by in the Chemers text by each of the leadership theorists.

References

Beckett, A. M. (2003). Removing cultural barriers to motivation. Kappa Delta Pi Record 39(3), 126-29.

Earl, L., & Katz, S. (2002). Leading schools in a data rich world. In K. Leithwood & P. Hallinger (Eds.), Second international handbook of educational leadership and administration (pp. 1003-1022). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

House, R. (1996). Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy, and reformulated theory. Leadership Quarterly 7 (3), 323-352.

Leithwood, K. A., & Duke, D. L. (1998). Mapping the conceptual terrain of leadership: A critical point of departure for cross-cultural studies. Peabody Journal of Education, 73(2), 31-50.

Ouchi, W. (2003). Making schools work: a revolutionary plan to get your children the education they need. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Pewewardy, C. & Frey, B. (2004). American Indian students' perceptions of racial climate, multicultural support services, and ethnic fraud at a predominantly White university. Journal of American Indian Education, 43(1), 32-60.

Robertson, J. M. & Webber, C. F. (2000). Cross-cultural leadership development. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 3(4), 315-330.

Smith. F. (1996). Leadership Qualities. Leadership Journal,17 (4),30.

Webber, C. F., & Robertson, J. M. (2004). Internationalization and educators' understanding of issues in educational leadership. The Educational Forum, 68(3), 264-75.

Shield, C. M. (2002). Cross-cultural leadership and communities of difference: Thinking about leading in diverse schools. In K. Leithwood & P. Hallinger (Eds.), Second international handbook of educational leadership and administration (pp. 209-244). Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

The influence of Cognitive Theory.

During the first fifty years of research on leadership from the 1930’s it was assumed that reports and judgments were accurate records of reality, and ratings of leadership were true representations of the actions that a leader had actually performed. When cognitive theories were applied to leadership a paradigm shift occurred which provided alternative ways to understand and evaluate leadership.

By the 1960’s the role of perception in the judgment process came under scrutiny in the field of social psychology (Shaw & Costanzo, 1982), organizational psychologists went further, to apply these theories in the form of leader-follower perceptions. Fritz Heider’s (1944) work on phenomenal causality drew attention to the processes by which people assign causes to the interpersonal events that happen around them. The perceptions of followers by leaders may be explained by internal attributions, where the cause of success or failure is due to the individual rather than the circumstance. Harold Kelley’s (1967, 1973) External Attribution Theory explains how an individual’s behavior may be due to extraneous circumstance rather than inherent personality traits. Ross’s Fundamental Attribution error (1978) exposed the tendency for leaders to make internal attributions, even when evidence for external or situational causes is present.

The attribution models are often criticized for placing too much emphasis on carefully controlled process of information, when many of the judgments that leaders make about their subordinates are not so rational and carefully thought out. Lord & Mayer (1991) pointed out that internal attributions are more spontaneous whereas external attributions are the result or more careful analysis. Karen Brown (1984) observed that the more removed from the subordinate’s task, the more likely they are to make fundamental attribution errors and focus individual performance rather than the circumstances that surround them.

The perception of leaders by followers, according to strong constructionist viewpoint (Lord, 1985) is distorted by presuppositions that affect the follower’s processing capacities. This is closely echoed by Meindl (1990) who saw the follower romantically connected to the leader in such a way that it became easier to believe in leadership than prove it. Dachler’s Organismic evolutionary perspective (1984) further endorses the fact that positivist assumptions about leaders severely distort the reliability of the data on leadership research.

Rather than undermine and discount other leadership theories, cognitive approaches enhance and compliment them to better explain leader-follower relations.Attribution theories can be used to explain perceptions that Principals, teachers, students, parents and the community have about each other. External attribution theory and the possibility of making fundamental attribution errors are valuable tools for administrators and teachers to use in their evaluations of teachers and students respectively. Karen Brown’s work (1984) is a good indicator that educational leaders with their finger on pulse, closely involved with the happenings inside the classroom are less likely to make fundamental attribution errors.

There is a great deal of research that supports cognitive approaches to education. These include Bloom, Dewey, Piaget, Gagne, Ausubel and Gardner, to name a few. New developments in brain research are quickly translated into classroom practice (Wolfe, 2001). Educational, leadership is however, a little slower to catch on. Most of the developments have been limited to studies of educational leader’s presuppositions, biases and perceptions. In most cases race and gender have taken center stage. Other areas of cognition would prove valuable tools for educational leaders, as their faculty and staff implement them in the classroom. Hurley et al (2003) describe a model where cognitive principles are applied to educational leadership in the form of learning conversations with teachers. Caine & Caine (1994) have conducted some valuable groundwork for implementing brain-based processes in restructuring schools and renewing education. Some suggestions for further research include how cognitive leadership strategies can affect a school’s culture and climate, teacher moral or student achievement. Does the level of leadership involvement in classroom practice have an effect the occurrence of attribution errors, and how can educational leaders reduce the incidence of attribution errors made by the community about their school.

References

Brown, K.A. (1984)Explaining group poor performance: An attributional analysis. Academy of Management Review, 9, 54-63.

Caine, G., & Caine, R.N.(1994). Mindshifts: A brain-based process for restructuring schools and renewing education. Tucson, AZ: Zephyr.

Dachler, H. P. (1984) On refocusing leadership from a social systems perspective. In J.G Hunt, D. M Hosking, C.A. Schriesheim, & R. Steward (Eds.), Leaders and mangers: International perspectives on managerial behaviour and leadership (pp. 100-108). New York: Pergamon Press.

Heider, F. (1944). Social perception and phenomenal causality. Psychological Review,51, 358-374.

Hurley, V., Greenblatt, R. G., & Cooper, B. S. (2003) Learning Conversation:Transforming supervision. Principal Leadership, 3(9), 3-36.

Kelley, H. H. (1967).Attribution theory in social psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.) Nebraska symposium on motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Kelley, H.H. (1973). The process of causal attribution. American Psychologist, 28, 107- 128. Lord, R. G. (1985). An information processing approach to social percipions, leadership,and behavioral measurement in organization. In D.M .Staw & L.L Cummings (Eds.), Research in organization behavior ,7, Greenwich, CT:JAI Press.

Lord, R. G., & Mayer, K. J. (1991). Leadership and information processing: Linking perceptions and performance. Boston: Unwin-Hyman.

Meindl, J.R. (1990). On leadership: An alternative to the conventional wisdom. In B. A. Staw (Ed.), Research in organizational behavior, (Vol.12, pp. 159-203. New York: JAI Press.

Ross, L. (1978). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Cognitive theories in social psychology. New York: Academic Press.

Shaw, M., & Constanzo, P.R. (1982) Theories of social psychology, (2nd edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Wolfe, P (2001) Brain matters: Translating research in to classroom practice. Alexandria, VA. ASCD

Summary

See also

References

Fife, J., & Goodchild, L., Eds. (1991). Identifying and preparing leaders. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hoppe, S. & Spech, B., Eds. (2003). Administration as a profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Leithwood, K. & Riehl, C. (2003). What do we already know about successful school leadership? AERA Division A Task Force on Developing Research in Educational Leadership Report. American Educational Research Association. Washington, D.C.

Mulford, M., Silins, H., & Leithwood, K.(2004). Educational Leadership for Organizational Learning and Improved Student Outcomes. New York: Kluwer.

External links

ERIC Digests A list of 686 digests is generated by using the word “leadership” in the search box.

American Education Research Association (AERA) Devoted to improving the educational process by encouraging scholarly inquiry related to education and by promoting the dissemination and practical application of research results.

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD)For leaders in elementary, middle, and secondary education and others interested in curriculum, instruction, supervision, and leadership in schools. Contains abstracts of articles and study guides for the journal Educational Leadership.

National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP)

National Association of Secondary School Principals (NASSP)

http://www.nsba.org/sbot/toolkit/LeadQual.html