NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Egyptians

The Egyptians (Egyptian: rmṯnkm.t; Coptic: ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙ'ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ ni.ramenkīmi; Arabic: مِصريّون miṣriyūn; Masri: مَصريين maṣreyyīn) are a North African ethnic group native to Egypt. Egyptian identity is rooted in the lower Nile Valley, the small strip of cultivatable land stretching from the First Cataract to the Mediterranean Sea and enclosed by vast deserts. This unique geography has been the basis of the development of Egyptian society in antiquity. Image File history File links Flag_of_Egypt. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Libya. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Jordan. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Kuwait. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Italy. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Iraq. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Greece. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Germany. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Netherlands. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Austria. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Switzerland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Spain. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Israel. ... Egyptian Arabic (MarÄ« Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) is part of the Arabic macrolanguage of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ... Sunni Muslims are the largest denomination of Islam. ... Christ - Coptic Art Coptic Orthodox Christianity is the indigenous form of Christianity that, according to tradition, the apostle Mark established in Egypt in the middle of the 1st century AD (approximately AD 60). ... Sufism is a mystic tradition within Islam that encompasses a diverse range of beliefs and practices dedicated to Divine love and the cultivation of the elements of the Divine within the individual human being. ... Shiʻa Islam (Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite) makes up the second largest sect of believers in Islam, constituting about 30%–35% of all Muslim. ... The Coptic Catholic Church is an Alexandrian Rite church sui juris particular Church in full communion with the Pope of Rome. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Known in India as the Lotus Temple, the Bahai House of Worship attracts an average of three and a half million visitors a year. ... â€œAtheistâ€ redirects here. ... Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. ... For the breed of goat of the same name, see Anglo-Nubian. ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ... Arabic redirects here. ... Egyptian Arabic (MarÄ« Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) is part of the Arabic macrolanguage of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. ... Northern Africa (UN subregion) geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Africa. ... ... The six cataracts of the Nile Fourth Cataract Sixth Cataract The six primary cataracts of the Nile are shallow stretches between Aswan and Khartoum where the waters surface is broken by numerous small boulders and stones lying on the river bed, as well as many small rocky islets. ... Mediterranean redirects here. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River...

The Egyptian people have spoken only languages from the northern branch of the Afro-Asiatic family throughout their history, from old Egyptian to today's vernacular Egyptian Arabic. Their religion is predominantly Sunni Islam with a Shia minority and a significant proportion who follow native Sufi orders.^[9]^[10] A large minority of Egyptians belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church, whose liturgical language, Coptic, is the latest stage of the indigenous Egyptian language. The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a language family (Languages of Africa) with about 375 languages (SIL estimate) and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa, East Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, and Southwest Asia (including some 200 million speakers of Arabic). ... Egyptian Arabic (MarÄ« Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) is part of the Arabic macrolanguage of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. ... Sunni Muslims are the largest denomination of Islam. ... Shiʻa Islam (Arabic شيعى follower; English has traditionally used Shiite) makes up the second largest sect of believers in Islam, constituting about 30%–35% of all Muslim. ... Sufism (Arabic تصوف taṣawwuf) is a system of esoteric philosophy commonly associated with Islam. ... Tariqah ( transliteration: ; pl. ... Christ - Coptic Art Coptic Orthodox Christianity is the indigenous form of Christianity that, according to tradition, the apostle Mark established in Egypt in the middle of the 1st century AD (approximately AD 60). ... A sacred language is a language, frequently a dead language, that is cultivated for religious reasons by people who speak another language in their daily life. ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ... Spoken in: Ancient Egypt Language extinction: evolved into Demotic by 600 BC, into Coptic by AD 200, and was extinct by the 17th century Language family: Afro-Asiatic Egyptian Writing system: hieroglyphs, cursive hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic (later, occasionally Arabic script in government translations) Language codes ISO 639-1: none...

Names of the Egyptians

Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ... Coptic is the most recent phase of ancient Egyptian. ... Religions Coptic Orthodox Christianity, Coptic Catholicism, Protestantism Scriptures Bible Languages Mari, Coptic, Arabic, English, French, German A Copt (Coptic: , literally: Egyptian Christian) is a native Egyptian Christian. ... Ptah also refers to the asteroid 5011 Ptah Ptah In Egyptian mythology, Ptah (also spelt Peteh) was the deification of the primordial mound in the Ennead cosmogony, which was more literally referred to as Ta-tenen (also spelt Tathenen), meaning risen land, or as Tanen, meaning submerged land. ... Ptah also refers to the asteroid 5011 Ptah Ptah In Egyptian mythology, Ptah (also spelt Peteh) was the deification of the primordial mound in the Ennead cosmogony, which was more literally referred to as Ta-tenen (also spelt Tathenen), meaning risen land, or as Tanen, meaning submerged land. ... For other uses, see Memphis. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Â· Other religions Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: Christianity is... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Jesus Christ in a Coptic icon The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria (Coptic: , literally: the Egyptian Orthodox Church of Alexandria) is the official name for the largest Christian church in Egypt. ... Mamluk Flag Eastern Mediterranean 1450 Capital Cairo Language(s) Arabic, Kipchak Turkic[1] Religion Islam Government Monarchy History - As-Salih Ayyub Death 1250 - Battle of Ridanieh 1517 Today part of Egypt Saudi Arabia Syria Palestine Israel Lebanon Jordan Turkey Libya A Mamluk cavalryman, drawn in 1810 A mamluk (Arabic: Ù…Ù…Ù„ÙˆÙƒ (singular... 14th century BC diplomatic letter in Akkadian, found in Tell Amarna. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Egyptian Arabic (MarÄ« Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) is part of the Arabic macrolanguage of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. ... This article describes the Biblical dialects of Hebrew. ... Map of Lower and Upper Egypt Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. ... Edward William Lane (1801 - 1876), Arabic scholar, son of a prebendary of Hereford, where he was born, began life as an engraver, but going to Egypt in search of health, devoted himself to the study of Oriental languages and manners, and adopted the dress and habits of the Egyptian man...

Demographics and society

An estimated 76.4 million Egyptians live in the world, but the vast majority are in Egypt where they constitute about 94% (72.5 million) of the total population.^[1] Approximately 90% of Egyptians are Muslim and 10% are Christian (9% Coptic, 1% other Christian),^[13] though estimates vary. Almost all live near the banks of the Nile River where the only arable land is found. Close to a half of the Egyptian people today are urban, living in the densely populated centres of greater Cairo, Alexandria and other major cities. Most of the rest are fellahin or farmers leading humble lives in rural towns and villages. A large influx of fellahin into urban towns and cities, and rapid urbanization of many rural areas since the turn of the last century, have shifted the balance between the number of urban and rural Egyptians. Egypt is the most populous country in the Middle East and the second-most populous on the African continent. ... Image File history File links Cairo_orascom. ... Image File history File links Cairo_orascom. ... The Nile (Arabic: , transliteration: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. ... Jesus Christ in a Coptic icon. ... For other uses, see Cairo (disambiguation). ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... Charles Gleyre, Three Fellahs (fr. ...

Egyptians also form smaller minorities in the countries that neighbour them, in particular Saudi Arabia and Libya where they are mostly temporary professionals and workers, as well as in other countries as immigrants, notably in the United States, Canada, Australia, Italy, Greece and France. It is also a matter of dispute whether the Egyptian population of the Balkan states are ethnic Egyptians. Balkan Egyptians or simply Egyptians (Albanian: Maxhup, Serbian: EgipÄ‡ani/Ð•Ð³Ð¸Ð¿Ñ›Ð°Ð½Ð¸ or Äupci/Ð‚ÑƒÐ¿Ñ†Ð¸, Macedonian: Gjupci/ÐƒÑƒÐ¿Ñ†Ð¸) are an Albanian-speaking ethnic minority of Kosovo and Macedonia. ... Balkan redirects here. ...

The Egyptians are an autochthonous people deeply attached to their land. Historically, it was rare for Egyptians to leave their country permanently or for an extended period of time—it was not until the 1970s that Egyptians began to emigrate in large numbers. Until only recently, a study on the pattern of Egyptian emigration was quoted as saying "Egyptians have a reputation of preferring their own soil. Few leave except to study or travel; and they always return... Egyptians do not emigrate."^[14] Egyptians also tend to be provincial, meaning their attachment extends not only to Egypt but to the specific provinces, towns and villages from which they hail. Therefore, return migrants, such as temporary workers abroad, come back to their region of origin in Egypt. Egypt is divided into 26 governorates (muhafazat, singular - muhafazah): Ad Daqahliyah Al Bahr al Ahmar Al Buhayrah Al Fayyum Al Gharbiyah Al Iskandariyah Al Ismailiyah Al Jizah Al Minufiyah Al Minya Al Qahirah Al Qalyubiyah Al Wadi al Jadid Ash Sharqiyah As Suways Aswan Asyut Bani Suwayf Bur Sa...

A sizable Egyptian diaspora did not begin to form until well into the 1980s, today numbering nearly 4 million (2006 est).^[1] Generally, those who emigrate to the United States and western European countries tend to do so with the intention of settling permanently, while Egyptians migrating to neighboring countries in the Middle East only go there to work with the intention of returning to Egypt: The Nile (Arabic: , transliteration: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... Ful Medames is the national dish of Egypt, often eaten at breakfast. ...

Egyptian emigration is primarily motivated by economic and political considerations. High rates of unemployment and population growth are two of the socioeconomic conditions that steadily deteriorated following the 1952 coup d'état, leading scores of Egyptians to seek better opportunities in foreign countries. Political repression and human rights violations by Egypt's ruling régime are other contributing factors (see Egypt#Human rights). Egyptians have also been impacted by the wars between Egypt and Israel, particularly after the Six-Day War in 1967, when migration rates began to rise. In August 2006, Egyptians made headlines when 11 students from Mansoura University failed to show up at their American host institutions for a cultural exchange program in the hope of finding employment.^[16] Many Coptic Christians also leave the country due to discrimination and harassment by the Egyptian government and Islamist groups. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (600x900, 255 KB) http://www. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (600x900, 255 KB) http://www. ... For the Arabic word for success in the context of Islam, see Falah. ... Coup redirects here. ... This article is about the country of Egypt. ... Combatants Israel Egypt Syria Jordan Iraq Commanders Yitzhak Rabin, Moshe Dayan, Uzi Narkiss, Israel Tal, Mordechai Hod, Ariel Sharon Abdel Hakim Amer, Abdul Munim Riad, Zaid ibn Shaker, Hafez al-Assad Strength 264,000 (incl. ... Mansoura University was founded in 1972 in Mansoura city, Egypt. ... Religions Coptic Orthodox Christianity, Coptic Catholicism, Protestantism Scriptures Bible Languages Mari, Coptic, Arabic, English, French, German A Copt (Coptic: , literally: Egyptian Christian) is a native Egyptian Christian. ...

Egyptians in neighboring countries face additional challenges. Over the years, abuse, exploitation and/or ill-treatment of Egyptian workers and professionals in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Iraq and Libya have been reported by the Egyptian Human Rights Organization^[17] and different media outlets.^[18]^[19] Arab nationals have in the past expressed fear over an "'Egyptianization' of the local dialects and culture that were believed to have resulted from the predominance of Egyptians in the field of education"^[2] (see also Egyptian Arabic#Geographic distribution). Twice Libya was on the brink of war with Egypt due to mistreatment of Egyptian workers and after the signing of the peace treaty with Israel.^[20] When the Gulf War ended, Egyptian workers in Iraq were subjected to harsh measures and expulsion by the Iraqi government and to violent attacks by Iraqis returning from the war to fill the workforce.^[21] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf. ... Egyptian Arabic (MarÄ« Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) is part of the Arabic macrolanguage of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. ... The Israel-Egypt peace treaty (Arabic: Ù…Ø¹Ø§Ù‡Ø¯Ø© Ø§Ù„Ø³Ù„Ø§Ù… Ø§Ù„Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠØ© Ø§Ù„Ø¥Ø³Ø±Ø§Ø¦ÙŠÙ„ÙŠØ©; transliterated: Muahadat as-Salam al-Masriyah al-Israyliyah) (Hebrew: ×”×¡×›× ×©×œ×•× ×™×©×¨××œ-×ž×¦×¨×™×; transliterated: Heskem Shalom Yisrael-Mizraim) was signed in Washington, DC, United States, on March 26, 1979, following the Camp David Accords (1978). ... For other uses, see Iraq war (disambiguation). ...

Origins

Over the years, the findings of archaeology, biological anthropology and population genetics have shed light on the origins of the Egyptians. The indigenous Nile Valley population became firmly established during the Pleistocene when nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along the Nile river. Traces of these proto-Egyptians appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings in the terraces of the Nile and the desert oases. Beginning in the predynastic period, some differences between the populations of Upper and Lower Egypt were ascertained through their skeletal remains, suggesting a gradual clinal pattern north to south.^[22]^[23]^[24]^[25] This article is about the country of Egypt. ... Image File history File links Rammumy. ... Image File history File links Rammumy. ... Known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the Nineteenth Dynasty. ... Usermaatre-setepenre The Justice of Re is Powerful, Chosen of Re Nomen Ramesses (meryamun) Born of Re, (Beloved of Amun) Horus name [2] Kanakht Merymaa Golden Horus [2] Userrenput-aanehktu[1] Consort(s) Henutmire, Isetnofret, Nefertari Maathorneferure Issue Bintanath, Khaemweset, Merneptah, Amun-her-khepsef, Meritamen see also: List of children... For referencing in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Citing sources. ... Physical anthropology, sometimes called biological anthropology, studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. ... Population genetics is the study of the distribution of and change in allele frequencies under the influence of the four evolutionary forces: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, and migration. ... The Pleistocene epoch (IPA: ) on the geologic timescale is the period from 1,808,000 to 11,550 years BP. The Pleistocene epoch had been intended to cover the worlds recent period of repeated glaciations. ... In anthropology, the hunter-gatherer way of life is that led by certain societies of the Neolithic Era based on the exploitation of wild plants and animals. ... The Nile (Arabic: , transliteration: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. ... The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC) is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Narmer. ... In population genetics, a cline is a gradual change of a character or feature (phenotype) in a species over a geographical area, often as a result of environmental heterogeneity. ...

When Lower and Upper Egypt were unified c. 3150 BC, the distinction began to blur, resulting in a more "homogeneous" population in Egypt, though the distinction remains true to some degree to this day.^[26]^[27]^[28] Some biological anthropologists such as Shomarka Keita believe the range of variability to be primarily indigenous and not necessarily the result of significant intermingling of widely divergent peoples.^[29] Keita describes the northern and southern patterns of the early predynastic period as "northern-Egyptian-Maghreb" and "tropical African variant" (overlapping with Nubia/Kush) respectively. He shows that a progressive change in Upper Egypt toward the northern Egyptian pattern takes place through the predynastic period. The southern pattern continues to predominate in Abydos, Upper Egypt by the First Dynasty, but "lower Egyptian, Maghrebian, and European patterns are observed also, thus making for great diversity."^[30] Dr. Shomarka Keita is an African American biological anthropologist from Howard University, specialising in reserching the origins and historical development of African peoples, which got him involved in the Black Egypt controversy. ... The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC) is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Narmer. ... Nubia (not to be confused with Nuba, a collective term used for the peoples who inhabit the Nuba Mountains, in Kordofan province, Sudan, Africa) is the region in the south of Egypt, along the Nile and in northern Sudan. ... This article is about the Nubian civilization. ... Abydos (Arabic: Ø£Ø¨ÙŠØ¯ÙˆØ³, Greek Î‘Î²Ï…Î´Î¿Ï‚), one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt, is about 11 km (6 miles) west of the Nile at latitude 26Â° 10 N. The Egyptian name was Abdju (technically, 3bdw, hieroglyphs shown to the right), the hill of the symbol or reliquary, in which the sacred... Known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the First Dynasty. ...

A 2006 bioarchaeological study on the dental morphology of ancient Egyptians by Prof. Joel Irish shows dental traits characteristic of indigenous North Africans and to a lesser extent Southwest Asian populations. Among the samples included in the study is skeletal material from the Hawara tombs of Fayum, which clustered very closely with the Badarian series of the predynastic period. All the samples, particularly those of the Dynastic period, were significantly divergent from a neolithic West Saharan sample from Lower Nubia. Biological continuity was also found intact from the dynastic to the post-pharaonic periods. According to Irish: The term bioarchaeology was first coined by British archaeologist Grahame Clark in 1972 as a reference to zooarchaeology, or the study of animal bones from archaeological sites. ... Northern Africa (UN subregion) geographic, including above North Africa or Northern Africa is the northernmost region of the African continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Africa. ... Southwest Asia in most contexts. ... The Badarian culture provides the earliest direct evidence of agriculture in Upper Egypt. ... The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC) is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Narmer. ...

A group of noted physical anthropologists conducted craniofacial studies of Egyptian skeletal remains and concluded similarly that "the Egyptians have been in place since back in the Pleistocene and have been largely unaffected by either invasions or migrations. As others have noted, Egyptians are Egyptians, and they were so in the past as well."^[32] Download high resolution version (1024x768, 591 KB) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ... Download high resolution version (1024x768, 591 KB) This image has been released into the public domain by the copyright holder, its copyright has expired, or it is ineligible for copyright. ...

Genetic analysis of modern Egyptians reveals that they have paternal lineages common to indigenous North Africans/Berber populations primarily, and to Near Eastern peoples to a lesser extent — these lineages would have spread during the Neolithic and maintained by the predynastic period.^[33]^[34] Studies based on maternal lineages also link Egyptians with people from modern Eritrea/Ethiopia such as the Tigre.^[35]^[36] Genetic genealogy is the application of genetics to traditional genealogy. ... In the study of molecular evolution, a haplogroup is a large group of haplotypes, which are series of alleles at specific locations on a chromosome. ... Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. ... Inhabitants of the Near East, late nineteenth century. ... An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and polishing tools. ... The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC) is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Narmer. ... In the study of molecular evolution, a haplogroup is a large group of haplotypes, which are series of alleles at specific locations on a chromosome. ... The Tigre are an ethnic group of Eritrea who speak the Tigre language. ...

University of Chicago Egyptologist Frank Yurco confirmed this finding of historical and regional continuity, saying: For other uses, see University of Chicago (disambiguation). ...

History

Egyptians may have the longest continuous history of any people, spanning a period of some 7,000 years. The Egyptians' recorded history starts with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt c. 3150 BC, an event that sparked the beginning of Egypt's ancient civilization. A succession of thirty mostly native dynasties ruled for the next three millennia, during which Egyptian culture flourished and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC, giving rise to the Ptolemaic dynasty which introduced Hellenic culture to the Egyptians, but continued to rule according to ancient Egyptian traditions. This stability shifted when the Egyptians fell under Roman rule, most notably with the introduction of Christianity in Egypt by Saint Mark in the 1st century AD. The Egyptians were soon incorporated within the Byzantine fold and remained so until the 7th century AD, when Egypt became part of the Islamic Caliphate following Amr ibn al-As's conquest that brought Islam to Egypt. Egyptians were ruled by a succession of Arabs, Mamluk Circassians, Ottoman Turks and British until independence was reasserted in 1922 and a republic was declared in 1953. Hathor The history of Egypt is the longest continuous history, as a unified state, of any country in the world. ... It has been suggested that Hieroglyph (French Wiki article) be merged into this article or section. ... Map of Lower and Upper Egypt Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... A millennium (pl. ... This article has been tagged since January 2007. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... Centuries: 5th century BC - 4th century BC - 3rd century BC Decades: 380s BC 370s BC 360s BC 350s BC 340s BC - 330s BC - 320s BC 310s BC 300s BC 290s BC 280s BC 337 BC 336 BC 335 BC 334 BC 333 BC - 332 BC - 331 BC 329 BC 328... The Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt began following Alexander the Greats conquest in 332 BC and ended with the death of Cleopatra VII and the Roman conquest in 30 BC. It was founded when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt, creating a powerful Hellenistic state from southern Syria... The term Hellenistic (derived from HÃ©llÄ“n, the Greeks traditional self-described ethnic name) was established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to refer to the spreading of Greek culture over the non-Greek people that were conquered by Alexander the Great. ... The Roman Empire ca. ... Jesus Christ in a Coptic icon. ... Mark the Evangelist (×ž×¨×§×•×¡, Greek: ÎœÎ¬ÏÎºÎ¿Ï‚) (1st century) is traditionally believed to be the author of the Gospel of Mark and a companion of Peter. ... The 1st century was that century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Gregorian calendar. ... Byzantine redirects here. ... The 7th century is the period from 601 - 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian Era. ... At the commencement of the Islamic conquest of Egypt, Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. ... Ë¤Amr ibn al-Ë¤Ä€s (Arabic: Ø¹Ù…Ø±Ùˆ Ø¨Ù† Ø§Ù„Ø¹Ø§Øµ) (born c. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Languages Arabic other minority languages Religions Predominantly Sunni Islam, as well as Shia Islam, Greek Orthodoxy, Greek Catholicism, Roman Catholicism, Alawite Islam, Druzism, Ibadi Islam, and Judaism Footnotes a Mainly in Antakya. ... Mamluk Flag Eastern Mediterranean 1450 Capital Cairo Language(s) Arabic, Kipchak Turkic[1] Religion Islam Government Monarchy History - As-Salih Ayyub Death 1250 - Battle of Ridanieh 1517 Today part of Egypt Saudi Arabia Syria Palestine Israel Lebanon Jordan Turkey Libya A Mamluk cavalryman, drawn in 1810 A mamluk (Arabic: Ù…Ù…Ù„ÙˆÙƒ (singular... Circassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess (Ã‡erkes), and is not the self-designation of any people. ... The Ottoman Turks were the ethnic subdivision of the Turkish people who dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. ...

Prehistory

Archaeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the Pharaohs began. By about 5500 BC, Egypt was inhabited by settled communities of people who cultivated emmer wheat and barley, made pottery, weaved linen and raised sheep, goats and cattle. Before the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt, northern Egyptians seem to have been somewhat culturally distinct from their neighbors to the south. Surviving evidence for early settlement in Lower Egypt such as pottery, houses and burial sites appear different from those of the Upper Egyptians. The earliest known predynastic northern Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the earliest in Upper Egypt, the Badarian, by about 700 years.^[38] However, later predynastic Lower Egyptians were in contact with not only contemporaneous southern Egyptians, but also with people from the Levant and with the Sumerians of Uruk, as some of the plants cultivated and the pottery types found in Lower Egypt resemble those of neighboring cultures.^[39] For referencing in Wikipedia, see Wikipedia:Citing sources. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... For other uses, see Pharaoh (disambiguation). ... Map of Upper and Lower Egypt Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. ... The Badarian culture provides the earliest direct evidence of agriculture in Upper Egypt. ... The Levant The Levant (IPA: ) is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ... Sumer (or Shumer, Sumeria, Shinar, native ki-en-gir) formed the southern part of Mesopotamia from the time of settlement by the Sumerians until the time of Babylonia. ... Uruk (Sumerian Unug, Biblical Erech, Greek OrchoÃ« and Arabic ÙˆØ±ÙƒØ§Ø¡ Warka), was an ancient city of Sumer and later Babylonia, situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates, on the line of the ancient Nil canal, in a region of marshes, about 140 miles (230 km) SSE from Baghdad. ...

Prehistoric Lower Egyptians already believed in an existence after death, as attested by their grave goods.^[40] Each province before the unification of Egypt acquired its own animal deity. Uto and Bast were worshipped in the delta towns of Buto and Bubastis respectively, while Thoth and Wepwawet were the Upper Egyptian deities of Ashmounein and Asyut. The predynastic settlements of Upper Egypt displayed more elaborate funerary practices and artifacts that were more clearly the direct predecessors of those of the dynastic Egyptians. Significantly, the earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appears on Naqada III pottery vessels dated to about 3200 BC.^[41] During the predynastic and protodynastic periods, the southern Egyptian cities of Nekheb, Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) and Abydos were major centers of power. The first attempt to conquer Lower Egypt seems to have been made by a king from Nekhen known as Scorpion, but it would be another 100 years or so before another upper Egyptian king successfully unified the two lands.^[42] In Egyptian mythology, Buto (papyrus colored--referring to the color of the cobra) was a snake (especially cobra) goddess and patron of the oracle in the city of the same name. ... In Egyptian mythology, Bast (also spelt Ubasti, and Pasht) is an ancient goddess, worshipped at least since the Second Dynasty, for whom the centre of her cult was in Per-Bast (Bubastis in greek), which was named after her. ... NASA satellite photograph of the Nile Delta (shown in false colour) The Nile Delta (Arabic:Ø¯Ù„ØªØ§ Ø§Ù„Ù†ÙŠÙ„) is the delta formed in Northern Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. ... Buto This article is about the Egyptian city Buto. ... Bubastis is an Ancient Egyptian city, located along the River Nile in the Delta region of Lower Egypt. ... Thoth (Ramesseum, Luxor) Thoth (his Greek name derived from the Egyptian *, written by Egyptians as ) was considered one of the most important deities of the Egyptian pantheon, often depicted with the head of an ibis. ... In Egyptian mythology, Wepwawet (also spelt Upuaut, Wep-wawet, and Ophois) was originally a war god, whose cult centre was Atef-Khent (Lycopolis), in Upper Egypt. ... Black siltstone obelisk of King Nectanebo II. According to the vertical inscriptions he set up this obelisk at the doorway of the sanctuary of Thoth, the Twice-Great, Lord of Hermopolis. ... Location of Asyut on the map of Egypt. ... It has been suggested that Hieroglyph (French Wiki article) be merged into this article or section. ... Naqada or Naquada is a district and town about 30km north of Luxor on the west bank of the Nile in southern Egypt, (Upper Egypt),includes some villages such as Toukh,khatara ,Danfiq and zawayda. ... The Protodynastic Period of Egypt refers to the period of time at the very end of the Predynastic Period. ... ... Nekhen (Greek: Hierakonpolis, Arabic: Kom El-Ahmar) was the religious and political capital of Upper Egypt at the end of the Predynastic period ( 3200- 3100 BC.) and probably also during the Early Dynastic Period ( 3100 - 2686 BC). ... Abydos (Arabic: Ø£Ø¨ÙŠØ¯ÙˆØ³, Greek Î‘Î²Ï…Î´Î¿Ï‚), one of the most ancient cities of Upper Egypt, is about 11 km (6 miles) west of the Nile at latitude 26Â° 10 N. The Egyptian name was Abdju (technically, 3bdw, hieroglyphs shown to the right), the hill of the symbol or reliquary, in which the sacred...

Dynastic period

The beginning of the Egyptians' recorded history starts with the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt by the Upper Egyptian king Narmer (identified with the pharaoh Menes). He founded Ancient Egypt's 1st dynasty around 3150 BC. To strengthen his political role, King Menes/Narmer married the northern Egyptian princess Neithotep and took on the title of Two Ladies, i.e., Nekhbet, the vulture goddess of Upper Egypt and Uto the cobra goddess worshipped by the Lower Egyptians, as a symbol of the unification. Herodotus, like the Egyptian historian Manetho, associated the unification with King Menes. He also indicated that Menes founded the ancient city of Memphis in Lower Egypt, which became the new capital of the unified country. The Egyptians from this point onwards referred to the country as tAwy, Two Lands, a name that came to predominate until the New Kingdom period when the name km.t (Coptic: kīmi), Black Land, was more commonly used. The first two dynasties of Egypt were each ruled by eight kings and lasted for a combined period of nearly 400 years. Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... Archaeological evidence indicates that a distinct culture was developing in the Nile valley from before 5000 BC. What is now called the Pharaonic Period is dated from around 3100 BC, when Egypt became a unified state, until its survival as an independent state ceased in 332 BC, with its conquest... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1712x2288, 820 KB) Front* of the Narmer palette, taken from high-quality reproduction (facsimile) at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, ON. Other versions of this file: Image:NarmerPalette ROM.jpg Uploaded by request. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1712x2288, 820 KB) Front* of the Narmer palette, taken from high-quality reproduction (facsimile) at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, ON. Other versions of this file: Image:NarmerPalette ROM.jpg Uploaded by request. ... Reverse and Obverse Sides of Narmer Palette, this facsimile on display at the Royal Ontario Museum, in Toronto, Canada The Narmer Palette, also known as the Great Hierakonpolis Palette or the Palette of Narmer, is a significant Egyptian archeological find, dating from about the 31st century BC, containing some of... Map of Lower and Upper Egypt Ancient Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, known as Upper and Lower Egypt. ... Narmer was an Egyptian pharaoh who ruled in the 31st century BC. Thought to be the successor to the predynastic Serket, he is considered by some to be the founder of the First dynasty, and therefore the first pharaoh of all Egypt. ... This article is about the Pharaoh. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... Known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the First Dynasty. ... The royal titulary or royal protocol of an Egyptian Pharaoh is the standard naming convention taken by the kings of Ancient Egypt. ... In Egyptian mythology, Nekhbet (of Nekheb) was an early, predynastic, local vulture-goddess, patron of the city of Nekheb. ... In Egyptian mythology, Buto (papyrus colored--referring to the color of the cobra) was a snake (especially cobra) goddess and patron of the oracle in the city of the same name. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: HÄ“rodotos HalikarnÄsseus) was a Greek historian from Ionia who lived in the 5th century BC (ca. ... Manetho, also known as Manethon of Sebennytos, was an Egyptian historian and priest from Sebennytos who lived during the Ptolematic era, circa 3rd century BC. Manetho recorded Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt). ... For other uses, see Memphis. ... The New Kingdom is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt. ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ...

Old Kingdom

By the end of the Early Dynastic period, a strong centralized government was firmly established with Memphis as its capital city, and the foundations of the first peak period of Egyptian civilization were laid. The following era in Egyptian history, the Old Kingdom (c. 2700−2200 BC), is particularly famous for its magnificent superstructures, many of which served as royal tombs for the pharaohs. They were state-sponsored projects built in the 3rd and 4th dynasties and in which the whole of the Egyptian population often participated. Building typically commenced during the Nile's Inundation when agricultural lands were submerged in water and people could not farm. King Djoser's step pyramid at Saqqara, engineered by the famous architect and physician Imhotep, and the Giza pyramids are among this period's most famous examples. They are a testament to the Egyptians' extraordinary competence in astronomy and mathematics very early in their history. It is believed that many parts of famous medical papyri that appear in later periods, particularly the Edwin Smith papyrus, were written during this period by Imhotep and other Egyptian doctors.^[43] Image File history File links Rahotep. ... Image File history File links Rahotep. ... Sneferu He of Beauty[1] Horus name Neb-maat[2] Nebty name Neb-maat-nebty[2] Golden Horus Bik-nub[2] Consort(s) Hetepheres I Issues Khufu Father Huni Mother Meresankh I Died 2589 BC Major Monuments Bent Pyramid, Red Pyramid Sneferu, also spelt as Snefru or Snofru (in Greek... The Fourth dynasty of Egypt was the second of the four dynasties considered forming the Old Kingdom. ... The Old Kingdom is the name commonly given to that period in the 3rd millennium BC when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement â€“ this was the first of three so-called Kingdom periods, which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile... The Early Dynastic Period of Egypt is taken to include the First and Second Dynasties, lasting from 2920 BC, following the Protodynastic Period of Egypt, until 2575 BC, or the beginning of the Old Kingdom. ... The Old Kingdom is the name commonly given to that period in the 3rd millennium BC when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement â€“ this was the first of three so-called Kingdom periods, which mark the high points of civilization in the lower Nile... Known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the Third Dynasty. ... The Fourth dynasty of Egypt was the second of the four dynasties considered forming the Old Kingdom. ... Netjerikhet Consort(s) Inetkawes, Hetephernebti Unknown Father Khasekhemwy? Mother Nimaethap? Major Monuments Pyramid of Djoser Netjerikhet Djoser (Turin King List Dsr-it; Manetho Tosarthros) is the best-known pharaoh of the Third dynasty of Egypt, for commissioning the official Imhotep to build his Step Pyramid at Saqqara. ... The Pyramid of Djoser, or step pyramid or kbhw-ntrw, was built for the burial of Pharaoh Djoser-Netjerikhet by his Vizier Imhotep. ... Saqqara Saqqara or Sakkara, Saqqarah (Arabic: Ø³Ù‚Ø§Ø±Ø©) is a vast, ancient burial ground in Egypt, featuring the worlds oldest standing step pyramid (). It is located some 30 km south of modern-day Cairo and covers an area of around 7 km by 1. ... This article is about the ancient Egyptian official. ... 19th-century tourists in front of the Sphinx - view from South-East, Great Pyramid in background The Giza Necropolis stands on the Giza Plateau, on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. ... Plates vi & vii of the Edwin Smith Papyrus at the Rare Book Room, New York Academy of Medicine The Edwin Smith papyrus is the worlds earliest known medical document, written in hieratic around the 17th century BCE, but thought to be based on material from a thousand years earlier. ...

Egyptian religion and writing took definitive shape in the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods. The local pantheon, which had been in the predynastic period confined to sacred animal deities, expanded to include cosmic gods representing the sun, moon, sky and wind. This constituted an effort toward greater philosophical and intellectual development.^[44] Solar worship embodied in the cults of Ra and Atum—subsequently Atum-Ra—came to particular prominence in the Old Kingdom. Other important deities during this period were Hathor, Ptah and Horus. The art of mummification was also honed before the end of this period. The oldest known mummy dates to the 5th dynasty and was found in Saqqara.^[45] Lasting for an estimated 500 years, the Old Kingdom was the quintessential Egyptian civilization. Insular and unchallenged from abroad, the Egyptians enjoyed a time of continuous prosperity and stability unmatched by any other period, leading one historian to describe it as the "Peaceable Kingdom of historical memory."^[46] Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (500x667, 41 KB)Seated statue of an Egyptian scribe found in the Western cemetary at Giza; 5th dynasty. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (500x667, 41 KB)Seated statue of an Egyptian scribe found in the Western cemetary at Giza; 5th dynasty. ... Known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the Fifth Dynasty. ... A section of the Papyrus of Ani showing cursive hieroglyphs. ... For other uses, see Ra (disambiguation). ... History Atum (alternatively spelt Tem, Temu, Tum, and Atem) is an early deity in Egyptian mythology, whose cult centred on the Ennead of Heliopolis. ... For other uses, see Hathor (disambiguation). ... Ptah also refers to the asteroid 5011 Ptah Ptah In Egyptian mythology, Ptah (also spelt Peteh) was the deification of the primordial mound in the Ennead cosmogony, which was more literally referred to as Ta-tenen (also spelt Tathenen), meaning risen land, or as Tanen, meaning submerged land. ... For other uses, see Horus (disambiguation). ... This article is about the corpse preparation method, for other uses of Mummy see Mummy (disambiguation) An Egyptian mummy kept in the Vatican Museums. ... Known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the Fifth Dynasty. ...

Middle Kingdom

A period of political fragmentation led to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. It lasted for about 150 years during which central authority and social order were maintained by local governors. Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government brought back renewed prosperity for the country in the Middle Kingdom c. 2040 BC, reaching a peak during the reign of Amenemhat III. Thebes (modern Luxor) became the new capital during the 11th dysnaty, though government administration remained in Memphis. Egyptians regularly traded with their neighbors to the south and east, and their political influence extended into those areas. However, land cultivation and stock raising remained the foundation of Egypt's economy, as they would during the course of Egyptian history. The state did not institute a system of coinage until the Late Period—most business hitherto was conducted by barter.^[47] The Middle Kingdom became a golden age of Egyptian literature thanks to a large body of textual evidence that made this stage of Egyptian (i.e., Middle Egyptian) the classical phase of the language. Image File history File links Amenemhet_III.jpg File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Amenemhet_III.jpg File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... ny m3Ët rË (Nimaatre)[1] Belonging to the truth of Re Nomen Amenemhat[1] Amun is in front Horus name Wahankh[1] Long of life Nebty name Itjijautawy[1] Who comes to the inheritance of the two lands Golden Horus Ë3 ba(u) (Aabaw)[1] Great of power Issues... Known rulers, in the History of Egypt, for the Twelfth Dynasty. ... Image File history File links Ahmose-mummy-head. ... Image File history File links Ahmose-mummy-head. ... Nebpehtire[4] The Lord of Strength is Re Nomen Ahmose[3] The Moon is Born Horus name Aakheperu[5] Great of Developments[6] Nebty name Tutmesut[5] Perfect of Birth[6] Golden Horus Tjestawy[5] He who Knots Together the Two Lands[6] Consort(s) Ahmose-Nefertari Gods Wife... The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty, roughly between 2030 BC and 1640 BC. The period comprises two phases, the 11th Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes and the 12th Dynasty... The First Intermediate Period is the name conventionally given by Egyptologists to that period in Ancient Egyptian history between the end of the Old Kingdom and the advent of the Middle Kingdom. ... The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty, roughly between 2030 BC and 1640 BC. The period comprises two phases, the 11th Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes and the 12th Dynasty... ny m3Ët rË (Nimaatre)[1] Belonging to the truth of Re Nomen Amenemhat[1] Amun is in front Horus name Wahankh[1] Long of life Nebty name Itjijautawy[1] Who comes to the inheritance of the two lands Golden Horus Ë3 ba(u) (Aabaw)[1] Great of power Issues... Thebes Thebes (, ThÄ“bai) is the Greek designation of the ancient Egyptian niwt (The) City and niwt-rst (The) Southern City. It is located about 800 km south of the Mediterranean, on the east bank of the river Nile (). Thebes was the capital of Waset, the fourth Upper Egyptian nome... Luxor on Nile, at Luxor Temple with mosque. ... Manethos statement that the Eleventh dynasty consisted of 16 kings who reigned 43 years is contradicted by contemporary inscriptions and the evidence of the Turin King List, whose combined testimony proves that it consisted of seven kings who ruled about 160 years. ... ôľĎÚ The Late Period of Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third Intermediate Period, and before the Persian conquests. ...

The end of the Middle Kingdom was brought about by a decline in central authority which led to Egypt being occupied for the first time during its dynastic history. The Hyksos invaders were a Semitic people who took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC, and founded a new capital at Avaris. They ruled as Egyptian pharaohs and their names were often inscribed on scarabs bearing both the their Semitic and Egyptian titles. Hyksos rule lasted just over 100 years when they were eventually driven out by the native Egyptian nobleman Ahmose I. Despite the Hyksos' attempt to rule according to native Egyptian traditions, the Egyptians' perception of them was consistently negative. They were depicted as "uncouth barbarians who 'ruled without Re.'"^[48] Ahmose took to the throne in a re-unified Egypt, and with his rule began a period of Egyptian independence as well as expansion into surrounding regions. An image representing the Egyptian pharaoh Ahmose I defeating the Hyksos in battle. ... In linguistics and ethnology, Semitic (from the Biblical Shem, Hebrew: ×©×, translated as name, Arabic: Ø³Ø§Ù…) was first used to refer to a language family of largely Middle Eastern origin, now called the Semitic languages. ... Avaris Avaris (Egyptian: , Hatwaret, Greek: Î±Ï…Î±ÏÎ¹Ï‚, Auaris), thought to be located at Tell el-Daba (some still argue for different locations), was the ancient capital of the Hyksos dynasties in Egypt. ... Nebpehtire[4] The Lord of Strength is Re Nomen Ahmose[3] The Moon is Born Horus name Aakheperu[5] Great of Developments[6] Nebty name Tutmesut[5] Perfect of Birth[6] Golden Horus Tjestawy[5] He who Knots Together the Two Lands[6] Consort(s) Ahmose-Nefertari Gods Wife...

New Kingdom

The New Kingdom is perhaps the most celebrated period of Egyptian history. Lasting from roughly 1550 to 1070 BC, the period marked the rise of Egypt as an international power. Ahmose founded the 18th dynasty and relocated the capital to Thebes, though once again Memphis remained the administrative capital. The Egyptians emerged from the shock of the Hyksos invasion determined to protect Egypt's national and territorial integrity. The Egyptian army developed into a well-organized service made up of professionally trained soldiers. International relations became a primary concern for the New Kingdom pharaohs. Egyptians were introduced to many foreign ideas, some of which they adopted and incorporated into their lifestyle. As in most periods, agriculture and stock farming continued to be the mainstays of Egyptian economy. The introduction of the shaduf from western Asia helped develop more efficient methods of irrigation. Amun rose to become a state god and was syncretized with Ra as Amun-Ra. The main Temple of Amun built in Thebes is the largest structure in the Karnak complex. Image File history File links Tut. ... Image File history File links Tut. ... King Tut redirects here. ... The Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title, New Kingdom. ... The New Kingdom is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt. ... The New Kingdom is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of Egypt. ... The Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title, New Kingdom. ... Thebes Thebes (, ThÄ“bai) is the Greek designation of the ancient Egyptian niwt (The) City and niwt-rst (The) Southern City. It is located about 800 km south of the Mediterranean, on the east bank of the river Nile (). Thebes was the capital of Waset, the fourth Upper Egyptian nome... Shadoof in Hortobágy (1890s) Shaduf. ... For other uses, see Amun (disambiguation). ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Precinct of Amun-Re, located near Luxor, Egypt, is one of the four main enclosed areas that make up the immense Karnak Temple Complex. ... This article is about the Karnak temple complex in Egypt. ...

Perhaps this period is best known for some of its rulers. Queen Hatshepsut was one of only a few Egyptian female rulers and their most influential. She sent trade missions as far south as the coast of modern Eritrea, and her numerous building projects, most notably her mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri, were rivaled only by those of her Old Kingdom predecessors. Thutmose III, dubbed the Napoleon of Egypt, pushed Egypt's southern frontier to the Fourth Cataract in Nubia, then conquered and subsequently founded protectorates in the Levant. He undertook a building program at Karnak, including the festival temple "Effective of Monuments" in the precinct of Amun.^[49] Akhenaten with his wife Nefertiti revolutionized Egyptian religion, albeit briefly, with the solar monotheism of Aten. Young King Tutankhamun is world famous for his magnificent tomb found intact. Ramesses II conducted many successful military campaigns and signed what may be the world's first peace treaty.^[50] He constructed many impressive monuments, including the renowned archaeological complex of Abu Simbel and the memorial temple of Ramesseum. Ramesses III was the last of the great pharaohs of the New Kingdom, under whose rule Egypt reached a peak of prosperity.^[51] Maatkare[1] Truth is the Ka of Re Nomen Khnumt-Amun Hatshepsut[1] Joined with Amun, Foremost of Noble Ladies Horus name Wesretkau [1] Mighty of Kas Nebty name Wadjrenput[1] Flourishing of years Golden Horus Netjeretkhau[1] Divine of appearance Consort(s) Thutmose II Issue Neferure Father Thutmose I... Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut Mortuary temples (or memorial temples) were temples constructed adjacent to, or in the vicinity of, royal tombs in the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom periods of Ancient Egypt. ... Djeser-Djeseru â€“ the focal point of the complex Deir el-Bahri (Arabic Ø¯ÙŠØ± Ø§Ù„Ø¨ØØ±ÙŠ dayr al-baá¸¥rÄ«, literally meaning, â€œThe Northern Monasteryâ€) is a complex of mortuary temples and tombs located on the west bank of the Nile, opposite the city of Luxor, Egypt. ... Menkheperre Lasting is the Manifestation of Re[1] Nomen Thutmose Neferkheperu Thoth is born, beautiful of forms Horus name Kanakht Khaemwaset Mighty Bull, Arising in Thebes Nebty name Wahnesytmireempet Enduring in kingship like Re in heaven Golden Horus Sekhempahtydsejerkhaw Powerful of strength, holy of diadems Consort(s) Hatshepsut-Meryetre, Nebtu... Nubia (not to be confused with Nuba, a collective term used for the peoples who inhabit the Nuba Mountains, in Kordofan province, Sudan, Africa) is the region in the south of Egypt, along the Nile and in northern Sudan. ... The Levant The Levant (IPA: ) is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ... For other uses, see Akhenaten (disambiguation). ... Bust of Nefertiti from Berlins Altes Museum. ... For the Celtic Frost album, see Monotheist (album) In theology, monotheism (from Greek one and god) is the belief in the existence of one deity, or in the oneness of God. ... [1] Aten (or Aton) was the disk of the sun in ancient Egyptian mythology, and originally an aspect of Ra. ... King Tut redirects here. ... Usermaatre-setepenre The Justice of Re is Powerful, Chosen of Re Nomen Ramesses (meryamun) Born of Re, (Beloved of Amun) Horus name [2] Kanakht Merymaa Golden Horus [2] Userrenput-aanehktu[1] Consort(s) Henutmire, Isetnofret, Nefertari Maathorneferure Issue Bintanath, Khaemweset, Merneptah, Amun-her-khepsef, Meritamen see also: List of children... Model showing the relative positions of the Abu Simbel temples before and after relocation Categories: Ancient Egypt stubs | Wonders of the World ... Ramesseum from the air - showing pylons and secondary buildings The Ramesseum is the memorial temple (or mortuary temple) of Pharaoh Ramesses II (Ramesses the Great, also spelt Ramses and Rameses). It is located in the Theban necropolis in Upper Egypt, across the River Nile from the modern city of Luxor. ... Usermaatre Meryamun Powerful one of Maat and Ra, Beloved of Amun Nomen Ramesse Hekaiunu Ra bore him, Ruler of Heliopolis Consort(s) Iset Ta-Hemdjert, Tiye Issue Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI, Ramesses VIII, Amun-her-khepeshef, Khaemwaset, Meryamun, Meryatum, Montuherkhopshef, Pareherwenemef, Pentawer, Duatentopet (?) Father Setnakht Mother Tiye-Mereniset Died...

Late period

When the New Kingdom came to an end, the priests of Amun and the military had become powerful and independent at the expense of the throne. By 1200 BC, Egypt was under repeated attacks by Libyans from the west and invaders from the Aegean region referred to as the Sea Peoples. The country fell into the chaos of the Third Intermediate Period during which authority was divided among several competing nomarchs. The 22nd through the 25th dynasties were made up entirely of Libyan and Nubian/Kushite rulers. The Assyrians invaded and took of control of Egypt in the 7th century BC, but soon a native Egyptian dynasty drove out the Assyrians and reclaimed the throne. The 26th dynasty began the Saïte period which witnessed another period of Egyptian independence as well as a cultural revival. The first Saïte king, Psamtek I, founded a new capital at Saïs and reunified upper and lower Egypt. Egyptians looked at the Old Kingdom, by then a 2000-year-old civilization, for inspiration in their artistic and religious expression to cope with the repeated foreign assaults on their country at the close of the Pharaonic era. Image File history File links Nectanebo2. ... Image File history File links Nectanebo2. ... Nectanebo II (ruled 360 - 343 BC), also known by the name Nakhthoreb, was the third and last king of the Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt and the last native ruler of the country. ... ôľĎÚ The Late Period of Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third Intermediate Period, and before the Persian conquests. ... Look up Aegean Sea in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... The Budgie People is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political unrest, and attempted to enter or control Egyptian territory during the late 19th dynasty, and especially during Year 8 of Ramesses III of the 20th Dynasty. ... The Third Intermediate Period refers to the time in Ancient Egypt from the death of Pharaoh Rameses XI in 1070 BC to the foundation of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty by Psamtik I, following the expulsion of the Nubian rulers of the Twenty-Fifth Dynasty. ... A nomarch in ancient Egypt was a provincial governor, the regional authority over one of the 40 or so nomes (Egyptian: sepat) into which the country was divided. ... Nubia (not to be confused with Nuba, a collective term used for the peoples who inhabit the Nuba Mountains, in Kordofan province, Sudan, Africa) is the region in the south of Egypt, along the Nile and in northern Sudan. ... This article is about the Nubian civilization. ... For other uses, see Assyria (disambiguation). ... The Saite or Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt was the last native dynasty to rule Egypt before the Persian conquest (although others followed), and had its capital at Sais. ... Wahibre Nomen Psamtik Horus name Aaib Nebty name Neba Golden Horus Qenu Issues Nitocris I Died 610 BC Burial Sais Psammetichus, or Psamtik I, was the first of three kings of the Saite, or Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt. ... Sais was the chief city of the fifth nome of Lower Egypt, located in the western edge of the Nile Delta. ...

Society

Throughout the Pharaonic epoch, divine kingship was the glue which held Egyptian society together. It was especially pronounced in the Old and Middle Kingdoms and continued until the Roman conquest. The societal structure created by this system of government remained virtually unchanged up to modern times.^[52] The role of the king, however, was considerably weakened after the 20th dynasty. The king in his role as Son of Ra was entrusted to maintain Ma'at, the principle of truth, justice and order. His job also entailed maintaining and enhancing the country's agricultural economy by ensuring regular annual Nile floods on which the people depended for sustenance and their very livelihood. Ascendancy to the Egyptian throne reflected the myth of Horus who assumed kingship after he buried his murdered father Osiris. The king of Egypt, as a living personification of Horus, could claim the throne after burying his predecessor, who was typically his father. When the role of the king waned, the country became more susceptible to foreign influence and invasion. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2048x1337, 268 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Controversy over racial characteristics of Ancient Egyptians ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2048x1337, 268 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Controversy over racial characteristics of Ancient Egyptians ... Usermaatre-setepenre The Justice of Re is Powerful, Chosen of Re Nomen Ramesses (meryamun) Born of Re, (Beloved of Amun) Horus name [2] Kanakht Merymaa Golden Horus [2] Userrenput-aanehktu[1] Consort(s) Henutmire, Isetnofret, Nefertari Maathorneferure Issue Bintanath, Khaemweset, Merneptah, Amun-her-khepsef, Meritamen see also: List of children... The Twentieth Dynasty of ancient Egypt was founded by Setnakhte, but its only important member was Ramesses III, who modelled his career after Ramesses II the Great. ... For other uses, see Maat (disambiguation). ... The Nile (Arabic: , transliteration: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. ... For other uses, see Osiris (disambiguation). ...

The attention paid to the dead, and the veneration with which they were held, were one of the hallmarks of ancient Egyptian society. Egyptians built tombs for their dead that were meant to last for eternity. This was most prominently expressed by the Great Pyramids. The ancient Egyptian word for tomb pr nɦɦ means 'House of Eternity.' The Egyptians also celebrated life and this is attested by tomb reliefs and inscriptions, papyri and other sources depicting Egyptians farming, conducting trade expeditions, hunting, holding festivals, attending parties and receptions with their pet dogs, cats and monkeys, dancing and singing, enjoying food and drink, and playing games. The ancient Egyptians were also known for their engaging sense of humor, much like their modern descendants.^[53] Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2048x1328, 306 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Egyptians User:Zerida/Egyptians ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2048x1328, 306 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Egyptians User:Zerida/Egyptians ... The Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title, New Kingdom. ...

Another important continuity during this period is the Egyptian attitude toward foreigners—those they considered not fortunate enough to be part of the community of rmṯ or "the people" (i.e., Egyptians.) This attitude was facilitated by the Egyptians' more frequent contact with other peoples during the New Kingdom, when Egypt expanded to an empire that also encompassed Nubia through Jebel Barkal and parts of the Levant. The Egyptian sense of superiority was given religious validation, as foreigners in the land of Ta-Meri (Egypt) were anathema to the maintenance of Maat—a view most clearly expressed by the admonitions of Ipuwer in reaction to the chaotic events of the Second Intermediate Period. Foreigners in Egyptian texts were described in derogatory terms; e.g., 'wretched Asiatics' (Semites), 'vile Kushites' (Nubians), and 'Ionian dogs' (Greeks). Egyptian beliefs remained unchallenged when Egypt fell to the Hyksos, Assyrians, Libyans, Persians and Greeks—their rulers assumed the role of the Egyptian Pharaoh and were often depicted praying to Egyptian gods. Nubia (not to be confused with Nuba, a collective term used for the peoples who inhabit the Nuba Mountains, in Kordofan province, Sudan, Africa) is the region in the south of Egypt, along the Nile and in northern Sudan. ... Jebel Barkal or Gebel Barkal is a small mountain located some 400 km north of Khartoum, in Sudan, on a large bend of the Nile River, in the region called Nubia. ... The Levant The Levant (IPA: ) is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ... The Dialogue of Ipuwer and the Lord of All[1] is an ancient Egyptian poem preserved in a single papyrus, Leiden Papyrus I 344, which is housed in the National Archeological Museum in Leiden, Netherlands. ... The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when Ancient Egypt once again fell into disarray between the end of the Middle Kingdom, and the start of the New Kingdom. ... An image representing the Egyptian pharaoh Ahmose I defeating the Hyksos in battle. ... For other uses, see Assyria (disambiguation). ... This article is about the Persian people, an ethnic group found mainly in Iran. ...

The ancient Egyptians used a solar calendar that divided the year into 12 months of 30 days each, with five extra days added. As with nearly every other aspect of Egyptian society, the calendar revolved around the annual Nile Inundation (akh.t), the first of three seasons into which the year was divided. The other two were Winter and Summer, each lasting for four months. The modern Egyptian fellahin calculate the agricultrual seasons, with the months still bearing their ancient names, in much the same manner. The importance of the Nile in Egyptian life, ancient and modern, cannot be overemphasized. The rich alluvium carried by the Nile inundation were the basis of Egypt's formation as a society and a state. Regular inundations were a cause for celebration; low waters often meant famine and starvation. The ancient Egyptians personified the river flood as the god Hapy and dedicated a Hymn to the Nile to celebrate it. km.t, the Black Land, was as Herodotus observed, "the gift of the river." Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2048x1155, 224 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Egyptians User:Zerida/Egyptians ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (2048x1155, 224 KB) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Egyptians User:Zerida/Egyptians ... The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty, roughly between 2030 BC and 1640 BC. The period comprises two phases, the 11th Dynasty, which ruled from Thebes and the 12th Dynasty... The Nile (Arabic: , transliteration: , Ancient Egyptian iteru, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing river in Africa, generally regarded as the longest river in the world. ... For the Arabic word for success in the context of Islam, see Falah. ... Hapy, meaning runner, was a solar deity in Egyptian mythology, and the symbolisation of the annual flood of the Nile River, which deposited rich silt on the banks, allowing the Egyptians to grow crops. ... Herodotus of Halicarnassus (Greek: HÄ“rodotos HalikarnÄsseus) was a Greek historian from Ionia who lived in the 5th century BC (ca. ...

Persian Achaemenid period

Soon Egypt fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire led by Cambyses in 525 BC, marking more than a century of Persian rule. Constant revolting by Egyptians through the 5th century BC culminated in the Egyptians reasserting their independence briefly under Amyrtaeus, who led a revolt from the Delta and took control of Memphis and Upper Egypt.^[54] Egyptians remained independent until the reign of King Nectanebo II, who was to be the last native ruler of pharaonic Egypt. The country prospered during his reign (360−343 BC) and he undertook large building and sculpture construction comparable to those of the Saïte period.^[55] The Persians under Artaxerxes III dealt a final blow to the Egyptians' independence when they reconquered Egypt in 343 BC. Alexander the Great, on his way to conquer and dismantle the Persian Empire, arrived in Egypt in 332 BC. After Alexander's death, the Greek Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty was established by one of his generals, which continued to rule the country along pharaonic traditions. Alexander founded the city of Alexandria which became the new capital of Egypt until the Byzantine period. When the last and most famous of the Ptolemies, Queen Cleopatra VII, was defeated along with Mark Antony by the Roman Emperor Octavian in the Battle of Actium, it marked the end of 3000 years of Dynastic Egyptian history. The period of history in which Achaemenid Persia ruled over Egypt is divided into three parts: the first Persian domination, an interval of independence, and the second Persian domination. ... Persia redirects here. ... Founder of empires: Cyrus, The Great is still revered in modern Iran as he was in all the successor Persian Empires. ... Cambyses (or Cambese) is the Greek version of the name of several monarchs of Achaemenid line of ancient Persia. ... The only king of the Twenty-eighth Dynasty Amyrtaeus (or Amenirdis) ended the First Persian Occupation and reigned from 404 BC to 398 BC. He is known only from external Ancient Greek sources, and left no monuments. ... NASA satellite photograph of the Nile Delta (shown in false colour) The Nile Delta (Arabic:Ø¯Ù„ØªØ§ Ø§Ù„Ù†ÙŠÙ„) is the delta formed in Northern Egypt where the Nile River spreads out and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. ... Nectanebo II (ruled 360 - 343 BC), also known by the name Nakhthoreb, was the third and last king of the Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt and the last native ruler of the country. ... Artaxerxes III ruled Persia from 358 BC to 338 BC. He was the son of Artaxerxes II and was succeeded by Arses of Persia (also known as Artaxerxes IV). ... For the film of the same name, see Alexander the Great (1956 film). ... Persia redirects here. ... cleopatra ruled seneca for 10 years before she ruled Egypt. ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... Byzantine redirects here. ... Cleopatra was a co-ruler of Egypt with her father (Ptolemy XII Auletes), her brothers/husbands Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that solidified her grip on the throne, and, after Caesars assassination, aligned with Mark Antony, with whom she produced twins. ... Bust of Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (Latin: MÂ·ANTONIVSÂ·MÂ·FÂ·MÂ·N[1]) ( January 14 83 BC â€“ August 1, 30 BC), known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman politician and general. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ... Combatants Octavian Mark Antony, Cleopatra VII of Egypt Commanders Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Mark Antony Strength 260 warships, mostly liburnian vessels 220 warships, mostly quinqueremes and 60 egyptian warships Casualties Unknown Almost all of Antonys fleet The Battle of Actium was a naval battle of the Roman Civil War between...

Graeco-Roman period

When Alexander died, a story began to circulate that Nectanebo II, the last indigenous monarch, was Alexander's father. This made Alexander in the eyes of the Egyptians a legitimate heir to the native pharaohs.^[56] Alexander may have been hailed as a liberator for freeing Egypt from Persian Achaemenid rule, but his Macedonian successors, however, did not live up to his legacy as they proved to be no better than the previous Persian rulers in Egypt. The Ptolemies exploited Egypt for their own benefit and a great social divide was created whereby Egyptians were reduced to second-class citizens.^[57] Frequent revolting by the Egyptians against the Greeks took place under Ptolemy V Epiphanes (205 − 180 BC), whose coronation had earlier been commemorated by erecting a stele inscribed in Greek as well as hieroglyphic and demotic Egyptian. When the stele was discovered by the French in the 19th century, it came to be known as the Rosetta Stone and was key to deciphering hieroglyphs. Image File history File links CleopatraVII.jpgâ€Ž Black basalt statue of Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII, c. ... Image File history File links CleopatraVII.jpgâ€Ž Black basalt statue of Ptolemaic queen Cleopatra VII, c. ... Cleopatra redirects here. ... Persia redirects here. ... Founder of empires: Cyrus, The Great is still revered in modern Iran as he was in all the successor Persian Empires. ... The period of history in which Achaemenid Persia ruled over Egypt is divided into three parts: the first Persian domination, an interval of independence, and the second Persian domination. ... Tetradrachm issued by Ptolemy V Epiphanes, British Museum Ptolemy V Epiphanes ( Greek: , reigned 204-181 BCE), son of Ptolemy IV Philopator and Arsinoe III of Egypt, was the 5th ruler of the Ptolemaic dynasty. ... This article is about the stone structure. ... A section of the Papyrus of Ani showing cursive hieroglyphs. ... Demotic (from Î´Î·Î¼Î¿Ï„Î¹ÎºÎ¬ dimotika popular) refers to both the ancient Egyptian script derived from northern forms of hieratic used in the Delta, as well as the stage of the Egyptian language following Late Egyptian and preceding Coptic. ... This article is about the ancient Rosetta Stone found in Egypt. ...

But while Egyptians lost their national independence to the Macedonian Greeks, the priesthood continued to wield power as they had during the dynastic age. Under the Ptolemies, Egyptians practiced their religion undisturbed and largely maintained their own separate communities from their foreign conquerors.^[58] The Ptolemaic rulers all retained their Greek names and titles, but projected a public image of being Egyptian pharaohs. Much of this period's vernacular literature was composed in the demotic phase and script of the Egyptian language. It was focused on earlier stages of Egyptian history when Egyptians were independent and ruled by those they viewed as great native pharaohs such as Ramesses II. Many prophetic writings circulated among Egyptians promising expulsion of the Greeks.^[59] The language of administration became Greek, but the mass of the Egyptian population was Egyptian-speaking and concentrated in the countryside, while most Greeks lived in Alexandria and only few had any knowledge of Egyptian.^[60] A revival in animal cults, the hallmark of the Predyanstic and Early Dyanstic periods, is said to have come about as Egyptians became increasingly disillusioned and sickened by successive waves of foreign invasions. Feeling a spiritual void, the Egyptians turned to the most characteristic feature of their ancient religion, the worship of sacred animals which were mummified after death.^[61] Demotic (from Î´Î·Î¼Î¿Ï„Î¹ÎºÎ¬ dimotika popular) refers to both the ancient Egyptian script derived from northern forms of hieratic used in the Delta, as well as the stage of the Egyptian language following Late Egyptian and preceding Coptic. ... Usermaatre-setepenre The Justice of Re is Powerful, Chosen of Re Nomen Ramesses (meryamun) Born of Re, (Beloved of Amun) Horus name [2] Kanakht Merymaa Golden Horus [2] Userrenput-aanehktu[1] Consort(s) Henutmire, Isetnofret, Nefertari Maathorneferure Issue Bintanath, Khaemweset, Merneptah, Amun-her-khepsef, Meritamen see also: List of children...

When the Romans annexed Egypt in 30 BC, the social structure created by the Greeks was largely retained, though the power of the Egyptian priesthood diminished. The Roman emperors lived abroad and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship as the Ptolemies had. Egypt became further stratified with Romans at the apex of the social pyramid, Greeks and Jews in the middle, and Egyptians, who constituted the vast majority, at the bottom. At one point, the Roman emperor Caracalla advocated the expulsion of all ethnic Egyptians from the city of Alexandria, saying "genuine Egyptians can easily be recognized among the linen-weavers by their speech."^[62] This attitude lasted until 212 AD when Roman citizenship was granted to all the inhabitants of Egypt, though ethnic divisions remained largely entrenched.^[63] The Romans, like the Ptolemies had before them, treated Egypt like their own private property, a land exploited for the benefit of a small foreign elite. The Egyptian peasants, pressed for maximum production to meet Roman quotas, suffered greatly and many fled as a result to the desert.^[64] Under Roman rule, Egyptians paid a poll tax at full rate, Greeks paid at half-rate and Roman citizens were exempt.^[65] While Egypt largely retained its integrity and had a stable economy during Ptolemaic rule, it was reduced to an impoverished country cut off from its identity under Roman occupation. Download high resolution version (886x1139, 238 KB)Large version of portrait for Gallery of Fayum mummy portraits. ... Download high resolution version (886x1139, 238 KB)Large version of portrait for Gallery of Fayum mummy portraits. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Caracalla (April 4, 186 â€“ April 8, 217) was Roman Emperor from 211 â€“ 217. ...

Byzantine and Coptic Christian period

The cult of Isis, like those of Osiris and Serapis, had been popular in Egypt and throughout the Roman Empire at the coming of Christianity, and continued to be the main competitor with Christianity in its early years. The main temple of Isis remained a major center of worship in Egypt until the reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in the AD 6th century, when it was finally closed down. Egyptians, disaffected and weary after a series of foreign occupations, identified the story of the mother-goddess Isis protecting her child Horus with that of the Virgin Mary and her son Jesus escaping the emperor Herod.^[66] Consequently, many sites believed to have been the resting places of the holy family during their sojourn in Egypt became sacred to the Egyptians. The visit of the holy family later circulated among Egyptian Christians as fulfillment of the Biblical prophecy "When Israel was a child, then I loved him, and called my son out of Egypt" (Hosea 11:1). The feast of the coming of the Lord of Egypt on June 1 became an important part of Christian Egyptian tradition. According to tradition, Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the early 40s of the AD 1st century, under the reign of the Roman emperor Nero. The earliest converts were Jews residing in Alexandria, a city which had by then become a center of culture and learning in the entire Mediterranean oikoumene. Image File history File links AnkhCross. ... Image File history File links AnkhCross. ... For other uses, see Ankh (disambiguation). ... This article discusses the ancient goddess Isis. ... For other uses, see Osiris (disambiguation). ... Serapis can refer to: A series of British ships named HMS Serapis. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Byzantine redirects here. ... This article is about the Roman emperor. ... For other uses, see Horus (disambiguation). ... Virgin Mary redirects here. ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... Herod the Great. ... Mark the Evangelist (Greek: Markos) (1st century) is traditionally believed to be the author of the Gospel of Mark, drawing much of his material from Peter. ... For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation). ... This article is about the city in Egypt. ... Oikoumene, from the Greek Οικουμένη, which is the present participle of the verb Οικώ, meaning to inhabit. ...

St. Mark is said to have founded the Holy Apostolic See of Alexandria and to have become its first Patriarch. Within 50 years of St. Mark's arrival in Alexandria, a fragment of New Testament writings appeared in Oxyrhynchus (Bahnasa), which suggests that Christianity already began to spread south of Alexandria at an early date. By the AD mid-third century, a sizable number of Egyptians were persecuted by the Romans on account of having adopted the new Christian faith, beginning with the Edict of Decius. Christianity was tolerated in the Roman Empire until AD 284, when the Emperor Diocletian persecuted and put to death a great number of Christian Egyptians. This event became a watershed in the history of Egyptian Christianity, marking the beginning of a distinct Egyptian or Coptic Church. It became known as the 'Era of the Martyrs' and is commemorated in the Coptic calendar in which dating of the years began with the start of Diocletian's reign. When Egyptians were persecuted by Diocletian, many retreated to the desert to seek relief. The practice precipitated the rise of monasticism, for which the Egyptians, namely St. Antony, St. Bakhum, St. Shenouda and St. Amun, are credited as pioneers. By the end of the AD 4th century, it is estimated that the mass of the Egyptians had either embraced Christianity or were nominally Christian.^[67] Image File history File links Menas. ... Image File history File links Menas. ... Coptic icon of St Menas the Wonder-worker St. ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ... The following is a list of all the Coptic Popes who have led the Coptic Orthodox Church since the Council of Chalcedon. ... This article is about the Christian scriptures. ... Oxyrhynchus (Greek: ÎŸÎ¾ÏÏÏ…Î³Ï‡Î¿Ï‚; sharp-nosed; ancient Egyptian Per-Medjed; modern Egyptian Arabic el-Bahnasa) is an archaeological site in Egypt, considered one of the most important ever discovered. ... Bust of Traianus Decius. ... Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (c. ... Jesus Christ in a Coptic icon. ... The Coptic calendar, also called the Alexandrian calendar, is used by the Coptic Orthodox Church. ... Monasticism (from Greek: monachos â€” a solitary person) is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote ones life to spiritual work. ... Saint Anthony the Great (c. ... For the genus of jumping spider, see Pachomius (spider). ... Shenoute is considered to have been very austere as a person and an author of some of the best Coptic prose that has come down to us. ... Ammon or Amun (c. ...

The Catechetical School of Alexandria was founded in the AD 3rd century by Pantaenus, becoming a major school of Christian learning as well as science, mathematics and the humanities. The Psalms and part of the New Testament were translated at the school from Greek to Egyptian, which had already begun to be written in Greek letters with the addition of a number of demotic characters. This stage of the Egyptian language would later come to be known as Coptic along with its alphabet. The third theologian to head the Catachetical School was a native Egyptian by the name of Origen. Origen was an outstanding theologian and one of the most influential Church Fathers. He traveled extensively to lecture in various churches around the world and has many important texts to his credit including the Hexapla, an exegesis of various translations of the Hebrew Bible. Saint Pantaenus (d. ... Psalms (from the Greek: Psalmoi) (originally meaning songs sung to a harp, from psallein play on a stringed instrument, Î¨Î±Î»Î¼Î¿Î¯; Hebrew: Tehilim, ×ª×”×™×œ×™×, or praises) is a book of the Hebrew Bible, Tanakh or Old Testament. ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ... The Coptic alphabet is an alphabet used for writing the Coptic language. ... Origen Origen (Greek: ÅŒrigÃ©nÄ“s, 185â€“ca. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Pope Â· Archbishop of Canterbury Patriarch of Constantinople Christianity Portal This box: The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers... Hexapla (Gr. ... Exegesis (from the Greek to lead out) involves an extensive and critical interpretation of an authoritative text, especially of a holy scripture, such as of the Old and New Testaments of the Bible, the Talmud, the Midrash, the Quran, etc. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Â· Other religions Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: Note: Judaism...

At the threshold of the Byzantine period, the New Testament had been entirely translated into Coptic. But while Christianity continued to thrive in Egypt, the old pagan beliefs which had survived the test of time were facing mounting pressure. The Byzantine period was particularly brutal in its zeal to erase any traces of ancient Egyptian religion. Under emperor Theodosius I, Christianity had already been proclaimed the religion of the Empire and all pagan cults were forbidden. When Egypt fell under the jurisdiction of Constantinople after the split of the Roman Empire, many ancient Egyptians temples were either destroyed or converted into monasteries.^[68] Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (965x629, 221 KB) Coptic manuscript, AD 1249-50; images depicting Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemene, the kiss of Judas, the arrest of Christ, his appearance before Caiphas, Peters denial at cockcrow, Christ before Pilate, and the baptism of Jesus... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (965x629, 221 KB) Coptic manuscript, AD 1249-50; images depicting Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemene, the kiss of Judas, the arrest of Christ, his appearance before Caiphas, Peters denial at cockcrow, Christ before Pilate, and the baptism of Jesus... The Ayyubid or Ayyoubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish[1] origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for the Northern Mountains), Diyar Bakr, Mecca, Hejaz and northern Iraq in the 12th and 13th centuries. ... This article is about Jesus of Nazareth. ... Topics in Christianity Movements Â· Denominations Â· Other religions Ecumenism Â· Preaching Â· Prayer Music Â· Liturgy Â· Calendar Symbols Â· Art Â· Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul Â· Church Fathers Constantine Â· Athanasius Â· Augustine Anselm Â· Aquinas Â· Palamas Â· Luther Calvin Â· Wesley Arius Â· Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury Â· Catholic Pope Coptic Pope Â· Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box: For other... Yhosef Bar Kayafa (Hebrew ×™Ö°×”×•Ö¹×¡Öµ×£ ×‘Ö·Ö¼×¨ ×§Ö·×™Ö¸Ö¼×¤Ö¸×, ), also known as Caiaphas (Greek ÎšÎ±ÏŠÎ¬Ï†Î±Ï‚) in the New Testament, was the Jewish high priest to whom Jesus was taken after his arrest in the garden of Gethsemane, and who played a part in Jesus trial before the Roman Governor, Pontius Pilate. ... Pontius Pilate (Latin Pontius Pilatus) was the governor of the small Roman province of Judea from 26 until 36? AD although Tacitus believed him to be the procurator of that province. ... The Jordan River runs along the border between the West Bank and the Kingdom of Jordan Northern part of the Great Rift Valley as seen from space (NASA) The Jordan River Road sign In spring The Jordan River (Hebrew: × ×”×¨ ×”×™×¨×“×Ÿ nehar hayarden, Arabic: Ù†Ù‡Ø± Ø§Ù„Ø£Ø±Ø¯Ù† nahr al-urdun) is a river in Southwest... Byzantine redirects here. ... An engraving depicting what Theodosius may have looked like, ca. ... This article is about the city before the Fall of Constantinople (1453). ...

One of the defining moments in the history of the Church in Egypt is a controversy that ensued over the nature of Jesus Christ which culminated in the final split of the Coptic Church from both the Byzantine and Roman Catholic Churches. The Council of Chalcedon convened in AD 451, signaling the Byzantine Empire's determination to assert its hegemony over Egypt. When it declared that Jesus Christ was of two natures embodied in Christ's person, the Egyptian reaction was swift, rejecting the decrees of the Council as incompatible with the Miaphysite doctrine of Coptic Orthodoxy. The Copts' upholding of the Miaphysite doctrine against the pro-Chalcedonian Greek Melkites had both theological and national implications. As Coptologist Jill Kamil notes, the position taken by the Egyptians "paved [the way] for the Coptic church to establish itself as a separate entity...No longer even spiritually linked with Constantinople, theologians began to write more in Coptic and less in Greek. Coptic art developed its own national character, and the Copts stood united against the imperial power."^[69] The Council of Chalcedon was an ecumenical council that took place from October 8 to November 1, 451, at Chalcedon (a city of Bithynia in Asia Minor), today part of the city of Istanbul on the Asian side of the Bosphorus and known as the district of KadÄ±kÃ¶y. ... Miaphysitism (sometimes called henophysitism) is the christology of the Oriental Orthodox Churches. ... The term Melkite (also written Melchite) is used to refer to various Christian churches and their members originating in the Middle East. ... This page meets Wikipedias criteria for speedy deletion. ...

Arabic and Islamic period

The Islamic tradition in Egypt, similar to its Christian predecessor, traces its history to an earlier encounter with the new faith. It begins with Muhammad's union with the Egyptian lady Maria (subsequently 'Mother of the Believers')—an event believed by Egyptian Muslims as having led Muhammad to draft and sign a document ensuring the protection of the Copts when the Arabs conquered Egypt.^[70] Later, the story of the Muslim wresting of Egypt from the Byzantines would circulate among Muslim Egyptians as having been foretold in the Quranic injunction, "Come into Egypt safely, as God wills it" (Yusuf 12:99). Egyptians were known to the Arabs as Copts—a word believed to be a corruption of the Greek Aiguptios (Egyptian). Hence, throughout the early Islamic period, Egyptians in Arabic texts were often referred to as Copts (qibṭ or qubṭ), who continued in the majority to be Christian and Coptic-speaking for centuries, though in the early years it also applied to the native community that had embraced Islam. Image File history File links IbnTulunMosque. ... Image File history File links IbnTulunMosque. ... Ibn Tulun Mosque is located in Cairo, Egypt. ... Mashriq Dynasties Maghrib Dynasties The Abbasid Caliphate Abbasid (Arabic: , ) is the dynastic name generally given to the caliph of Baghdad, the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of the Arab Empire, that overthrew the Umayyad caliphs from all but Spain. ... Fostat (also spelled Fustat; Arabic: ) was the first capital city of Egypt under Arab rule. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... The Qurâ€™Än [1] (Arabic: , literally the recitation; also sometimes transliterated as Quran, Koran, or Al-Quran) is the central religious text of Islam. ... For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation). ... The word Copt signifies the natives of Egypt as a nationality, and in popular common culture in Egypt it is used to specifically signify Christian Egyptians, although its use to mean Egyptian is not unwitnessed. ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ...

Just before the Arab conquest, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius was able to reclaim Egypt after a brief Persian invasion in AD 616. He subsequently appointed Cyrus of Alexandria, a Chalcedonian, as Patriarch. Cyrus was determined to convert the Egyptian Miaphysites by any means. He expelled Coptic monks and bishops from their monasteries and sees. Many died in the chaos, and the resentment of the Egyptians against their Byzantine conquerors reached a peak.^[71] Meanwhile, the new religion of Islam was making headway in Arabia, culminating in the Muslim conquests that took place following Muhammad's death. In AD 639, the Arab general Amr ibn al-'As marched into Egypt, facing off with the Byzantines in the Battle of Heliopolis that ended with the Byzantines' defeat. The relationship between the Greek Melkites and the Egyptian Copts had grown so bitter that many Egyptians hailed the Arabs as liberators from Byzantine tyranny,^[72]^[73] ironically much as they had done nearly a thousand years earlier when their ancestors welcomed the Macedonian Greeks to free them from the Persians. For the Patriarch of Jerusalem, see Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem. ... Cyrus of Alexandria was a Melchite patriarch of the Egyptian see of Alexandria in the seventh century, one of the authors of Monothelism and last Byzantine prefect of Egypt; died about 641. ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ... Age of the Caliphs Expansion under the Prophet Muhammad, 622-632 Expansion during the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661 Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750 The initial Muslim conquests (632â€“732), also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab conquests,[1] began after the death of the Islamic prophet... Muhammad in a new genre of Islamic calligraphy started in the 17th century by Hafiz Osman. ... For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation). ... Ë¤Amr ibn al-Ë¤Ä€s (Arabic: Ø¹Ù…Ø±Ùˆ Ø¨Ù† Ø§Ù„Ø¹Ø§Øµ) (born c. ... The Battle of Heliopolis was a decisive battle between Arab Muslim armies and Byzantine forces for the control of Egypt. ... This article is about the Persian people, an ethnic group found mainly in Iran. ...

The Arabs moved the capital from Alexandria to Fustat and, through the 7th century, they retained the existing Byzantine administrative structure with Greek as the language of government, the ranks of which were filled by native Egyptians. Egyptians continued to worship freely so long as they paid the jizya poll tax levied by the Arabs, and the authority of the Miaphysite doctrine of the Coptic Church was nationally recognized. It was not long, however, before the relationship between the Egyptians and their Arab conquerors began to deteriorate. Initially, many Egyptians readily embraced Islam in the wake of the bitter conflict that ensued between the Coptic and Byzantine Churches. But soon, increased taxation by the Arabs became heavier, leading many Christians to adopt Islam in order to escape the jizya in addition to a land tax that had also been imposed on all Egyptians.^[74] According to al-Ya'qubi, repeated revolts by Egyptian Christians against the Arabs took place in the 8th and 9th centuries under the reign of the Umayyads and Abbasids. The greatest was one in which disaffected Muslim Egyptians joined their Christian compatriots around AD 830 in an unsuccessful attempt to repel the Arabs.^[75] The Egyptian Muslim historian Ibn Abd al-Hakam spoke harshly of the Abbasids—a reaction that according to Egyptologist Okasha El-Daly can be seen "within the context of the struggle between proud native Egyptians and the central Abbasid caliphate in Iraq."^[76] Fostat (also spelled Fustat; Arabic: ) was the first capital city of Egypt under Arab rule. ... In states ruled by Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (Arabic: Ø¬Ø²Ù’ÙŠØ©; Ottoman Turkish: cizye) is a per capita tax imposed on able bodied non-Muslim men of military age. ... Yaqubi (Ahmad Ibn Abu Yaqub Ibn Jafar Ibn Wahb Ibn Wadih Al-yaqubi, 9th century), was an Arab historian and geographer, was a great-grandson of Wadih, the freedman of the caliph Mansur. ... The Courtyard of the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, one of the grandest architectural legacies of the Umayyads. ... Mashriq Dynasties Maghrib Dynasties The Abbasid Caliphate Abbasid (Arabic: , ) is the dynastic name generally given to the caliph of Baghdad, the second of the two great Sunni dynasties of the Arab Empire, that overthrew the Umayyad caliphs from all but Spain. ...

The form of Islam that eventually took hold in Egypt was Sunni, though very early in this period Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity. Just as Egyptians had been pioneers in early monasticism so they were in the development of the mystical form of Islam, Sufism.^[77] Various Sufi orders were founded in the AD 8th century and flourished until the present day. One of the earliest Egyptian Sufis was Dhul-Nun al-Misri (i.e., Dhul-Nun the Egyptian). He was born in Akhmim in AD 796 and achieved political and social leadership over the Egyptian people.^[78] Dhul-Nun was regarded as the Patron Saint of the Physicians and is credited with having introduced the concept of Gnosis into Islam, as well as of being able to decipher a number of hieroglyphic characters due to his knowledge of Coptic.^[79] He was keenly interested in ancient Egyptian sciences, and claimed to have received his knowledge of alchemy from Egyptian sources.^[80] By the end of the 9th century, Islam appears to have become predominant among Egyptians.^[81] Image File history File links Dhulnun_tomb. ... Image File history File links Dhulnun_tomb. ... Dhul-Nun al-Misri (Arabic:Ø°Ùˆ Ø§Ù„Ù†ÙˆÙ† Ø§Ù„Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) (d. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Sunni Islam (Arabic سنّة) is the largest denomination of Islam. ... Monasticism (from Greek: monachos â€” a solitary person) is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote ones life to spiritual work. ... Sufism is a mystic tradition within Islam that encompasses a diverse range of beliefs and practices dedicated to Divine love and the cultivation of the elements of the Divine within the individual human being. ... This article is in need of attention. ... Dhul-Nun al-Misri (Arabic:Ø°Ùˆ Ø§Ù„Ù†ÙˆÙ† Ø§Ù„Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) (d. ... Akhmim, or Ekhmim, ia a town of Upper Egypt, on the right bank of the Nile, 67 mi by river south of Assiut, and 4 mi above Suhag, on the opposite side of the river where there is railway communication with Cairo and Assuan. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ...

In the years to follow the Arab occupation of Egypt, a social hierarchy was created whereby Egyptians who converted to Islam acquired the status of mawali or "clients" to the ruling Arab elite, while those who remained Christian, the Copts, became dhimmis. In time, however, the power of the Arabs waned throughout the Islamic Empire so that in the 10th century, the Turkish Ikhshids were able to take control of Egypt and made it an independent political unit from the rest of the empire. Egyptians continued to live socially and politically separate from their foreign conquerors, but their rulers like the Ptolemies before them were able to stabilize the country and bring renewed economic prosperity. It was under the Shiite Fatimids from the 10th to the 12th centuries that Muslim Egyptian institutions began to take form along with the Egyptian dialect of Arabic, which was to eventually supplant native Egyptian or Coptic as the spoken language. Al-Azhar was founded in AD 970 in the new capital Cairo, not very far from its ancient predecessor in Memphis. It became the preeminent Muslim center of learning in Egypt and by the Ayyubid period it had acquired a Sunni orientation. The Fatimids with some exceptions were known for their religious tolerance and their observance of local Muslim, Coptic and indigenous Egyptian festivals and customs. Under the Ayyubids, the country for the most part continued to prosper until it fell to the Mamluks. Download high resolution version (480x639, 49 KB)Luxor Temple The Mosque of Abu Haggag perched improbably above the first peristyle court. ... Download high resolution version (480x639, 49 KB)Luxor Temple The Mosque of Abu Haggag perched improbably above the first peristyle court. ... The Mosque of Abu Haggag is a mosque located in the Egyptian city of Luxor. ... Luxor on Nile, at Luxor Temple with mosque. ... Mawali is a term in ancient Arabic used to address non-Arab Muslims. In the second half of the sixth century, the Malawi were considered the third class in society with the Sayyids at the top followed by the free tribesmen. ... A Dhimmi, or Zimmi (Arabic ذمّي), as defined in classical Islamic legal and political literature, is a person living in a Muslim state who is a member of an officially tolerated non-Muslim religion. ... Anglicized/Latinized version of the Arabic word خليفة or Khalifah, Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam. ... The Ikhshidid dynasty of Egypt (sometimes transliterated other ways) ruled Egypt from 935 to 969. ... ShÄ«â€˜a Islam, also Shiâ€˜ite Islam, or Shiâ€˜ism (Arabic ) is the second largest denomination of the Islamic faith. ... The Fatimids, Fatimid Caliphate or al-FÄtimiyyÅ«n (Arabic Ø§Ù„ÙØ§Ø·Ù…ÙŠÙˆÙ†) is the Shia dynasty that ruled over varying areas of the Maghreb, Egypt, and the Levant from 5 January 910 to 1171. ... Egyptian Arabic (MarÄ« Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) is part of the Arabic macrolanguage of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. ... Al-Azhar Islamic university in Cairo Egypt Al-Azhar University is connected to the mosque in Cairo named to honor Fatima Az-Zahraa, the daughter of Muhammad, from whom the Fatimid Dynasty claimed descent. ... For other uses, see Cairo (disambiguation). ... The Ayyubid or Ayyoubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish[1] origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for the Northern Mountains), Diyar Bakr, Mecca, Hejaz and northern Iraq in the 12th and 13th centuries. ... Mamluk Flag Eastern Mediterranean 1450 Capital Cairo Language(s) Arabic, Kipchak Turkic[1] Religion Islam Government Monarchy History - As-Salih Ayyub Death 1250 - Battle of Ridanieh 1517 Today part of Egypt Saudi Arabia Syria Palestine Israel Lebanon Jordan Turkey Libya A Mamluk cavalryman, drawn in 1810 A mamluk (Arabic: Ù…Ù…Ù„ÙˆÙƒ (singular...

The Mamluk period (AD 1258-1517) is generally regarded as one under which Egyptians, Muslims and Copts, greatly suffered. Copts were forcibly converted to Islam in greater numbers following the Crusader assaults on Egypt. By the 15th century most Egyptians had already been converted to Islam, while Coptic Christians were reduced to a minority.^[83] The Mamluks were mainly ethnic Circassians and Turks who had been captured as slaves then recruited into the army fighting on behalf of the Islamic empire. Native Egyptians were not allowed to serve in the army until the reign of Mohamed Ali. Historian James Jankwoski writes: This article is about the medieval crusades. ... Circassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess (Ã‡erkes), and is not the self-designation of any people. ... This article is about the leader of Egypt. ...

Egyptians under the Ottoman Turks from the 16th to the 18th centuries lived within a social hierarchy similar to that of the Mamluks, Arabs, Romans, Greeks and Persians before them. Native Egyptians applied the term atrak (Turks) indiscriminately to the Ottomans and Mamluks, who were at the top of the social pyramid, while Egyptians, most of whom were farmers, were at the bottom. Frequent revolts by the Egyptian peasantry against the Ottoman-Mamluk Beys took place throughout the 18th century, particularly in Upper Egypt where the peasants at one point wrested control of the region and declared a separatist government.^[85] The only segment of Egyptian society which appears to have retained a degree of power during this period were the Muslim 'ulama or religious scholars, who directed the religious and social affairs of the native Egyptian population and interceded on their behalf when dealing with the Turko-Circassian elite. Egyptians, as Muslims, were part of a wider Islamic community, yet they held on to their national identity in the face of repeated invasions in the course of nearly 2000 years. Some Egyptian writers in the Ottoman period who wrote about the history of Egypt include Ibn Zunbul, el-Bakri, el-Isḥaqi and el-Sharqawi. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1200x1600, 224 KB) Moucharabieh vues de la cour, Maison es Suhaymi, (Le Caire, Ã‰gypte). ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high-resolution version (1200x1600, 224 KB) Moucharabieh vues de la cour, Maison es Suhaymi, (Le Caire, Ã‰gypte). ... The Ottoman Turks were the ethnic subdivision of the Turkish people who dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. ... Bey is originally a Turkish[1][2] word for chieftain, traditionally applied to the leaders of small tribal groups. ...

Modern independence

Modern Egyptian history is generally believed to begin with the French expedition in Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. The French defeated a Mamluk-Ottoman army at the Battle of the Pyramids, and soon they were able to seize control of the country. The French occupation was short-lived, ending when British troops drove out the French in 1801. Its impact on the social and cultural fabric of Egyptian society, however, was tremendous. To be sure, the Egyptians were deeply hostile to the French, whom they viewed as yet another foreign occupation to be resisted. At the same time, the French expedition introduced Egyptians to the ideals of the French Revolution which were to have a significant influence on their own self-perception and realization of modern independence. When Napoleon invited the Egyptian ulama to head a French-supervised government in Egypt, for some, it awakened a sense patriotism and a desire for national independence from the Turks. In addition, the French introduced the printing press in Egypt and published its first newspaper. The monumental catalogue of Egypt's ecology, society and economy, Description de l'Égypte, was written by scholars and scientists who accompanied the French army on their expedition. Image File history File links Veiled_woman. ... Image File history File links Veiled_woman. ... NapolÃ©on I, Emperor of the French (born Napoleone di Buonaparte, changed his name to NapolÃ©on Bonaparte)[1] (15 August 1769; Ajaccio, Corsica â€“ 5 May 1821; Saint Helena) was a general during the French Revolution, the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from... NapolÃ©on I, Emperor of the French (born Napoleone di Buonaparte, changed his name to NapolÃ©on Bonaparte)[1] (15 August 1769; Ajaccio, Corsica â€“ 5 May 1821; Saint Helena) was a general during the French Revolution, the ruler of France as First Consul (Premier Consul) of the French Republic from... Combatants French Republic Mamluks Commanders Napoleon Bonaparte Murad Bey Strength 20,000[1] 60,000[1] Casualties 300 5,000-6,000 Battle of the Pyramids, Francois-Louis-Joseph Watteau, 1798-1799. ... The French Revolution (1789â€“1815) was a period of political and social upheaval in the political history of France and Europe as a whole, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on... IDescription de lÃ‰gypte (English: Description of Egypt) is the monumental French comprehensive scientific description of ancient and modern Egypt as well as its natural history. ...

The withdrawal of French forces from Egypt left a power vacuum that was filled after a period of political turmoil by Mohammed Ali, an Ottoman officer of Albanian descent. He rallied support among the Egyptians until he was elected by the native Muslim ulama as governor of Egypt. Mohammed Ali is credited for having undertaken a massive campaign of public works, including irrigation projects, agricultural reforms and the cultivation of cash crops (notably cotton, rice and sugar-cane), increased industrialization, and a new educational system—the results of which are felt to this day. In order to consolidate his power in Egypt, Mohammed Ali worked to eliminate the Turko-Circassian domination of administrative and army posts. For the first time since the Roman period, native Egyptians filled the junior ranks of the country's army. The army would later conduct military expeditions in the Levant, Sudan and against the Wahabis in Arabia.^[87] Many Egyptians student missions were sent to Europe in the early 19th century to study at European universities and acquire technical skills such as printing, shipbuilding and modern military techniques. One of these students, whose name was Rifa'a et-Tahtawy, was the first in a long line of intellectuals that started the modern Egyptian Renaissance. This article is about the leader of Egypt. ... For other uses, see Cotton (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Rice (disambiguation). ... Species Saccharum arundinaceum Saccharum bengalense Saccharum edule Saccharum officinarum Saccharum procerum Saccharum ravennae Saccharum robustum Saccharum sinense Saccharum spontaneum Sugarcane or Sugar cane (Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation) of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae, tribe Andropogoneae), native to warm temperate to tropical... The Levant The Levant (IPA: ) is an imprecise geographical term historically referring to a large area in the Middle East south of the Taurus Mountains, bounded by the Mediterranean Sea on the west, and by the northern Arabian Desert and Upper Mesopotamia to the east. ... Wahhabism (Arabic: Al-WahhÄbÄ«yya Ø§Ù„ÙˆÙ‡Ø§Ø¨ÙŠØ©) or Wahabism is a conservative 18th century reform movement of Sunni Islam founded by Muhammad ibn Abd-al-Wahhab, after whom the movement is named. ... The Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula is a mainly desert peninsula in Southwest Asia at the junction of Africa and Asia and an important part of the greater Middle East. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ...

Renaissance

The period between 1860 − 1940 was most characterized by a nahda, renaissance or rebirth of a distinct Egyptian history, culture and language. It is best known for the renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and the cultural achievements that were inspired by it. Along with this interest came an indigenous, Egypt-centered orientation, particularly among the Egyptian intelligentsia that would affect Egypt's autonomous development as a sovereign and independent nation-state. Image File history File links Tahtawi. ... Image File history File links Tahtawi. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River...

The first modern self-conscious expression of Egyptian patriotism came in the mid-19th century from the Egyptian intellectual Rifa'a et-Tahtawi. Tahtawi was born in 1801 in a village south of Asyut, the same year the French troops evacuated Egypt. He was an Azharite recommended by his teacher and mentor Hassan el-Attar to be the chaplain of a group of students Mohammed Ali was sending to Paris in 1826. According to Tahtawi's memoir Rihla (Journey to Paris), he read works by Condillac, Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu and Bezout among others during his sojourn in France.^[88] In 1831, Tahtawi returned home in Egypt to undertake a career in journalism, education and translation. He founded the School of Languages in 1835 which had a great impact on the emerging Egyptian intellectual milieu. Three of his published volumes are works of political and moral philosophy in which he introduces his Egyptian audience to Enlightenment ideas such as secular authority and political rights and liberty; his ideas regarding how a modern civilized society ought to be and what constituted by extension a civilized or "good Egyptian"; and his ideas on public interest and public good.^[89] Location of Asyut on the map of Egypt. ... Al-Azhar Mosque in Cairo Egypt Al-Azhar University (Arabic: Ø§Ù„Ø£Ø²Ù‡Ø± Ø§Ù„Ø´Ø±ÙŠÙ; al-Azhar al-Shareef, the Noble Azhar), is a premier Egyptian institution of higher learning, world-renowned for its position as a center of Islamic scholarship and education. ... This article is about the capital of France. ... Ã‰tienne Bonnot de Condillac (September 30, 1715 â€“ August 3, 1780) was a French philosopher. ... For the singer of the same name, see Voltaire (musician). ... Rousseau redirects here. ... Montesquieu redirects here. ... Ã‰tienne BÃ©zout (March 31, 1730 - September 27, 1783) was a French mathematician who was born in Nemours, Seine-et-Marne, France, and died in Basses-Loges (near Fontainbleau), France. ... For other uses, see Philosophy (disambiguation). ... The Enlightenment (French: ; German: ; Italian: ; Portuguese: ) was an eighteenth century movement in European and American philosophy â€” some classifications also include 17th century philosophy (usually called the Age of Reason). ... This article is about secularism. ...

Tahtawi was instrumental in sparking indigenous interest in Egypt's ancient heritage. In 1868, he published a volume on the history of Ancient Egypt in which he glorifies the wonders and achievements of his ancestors.^[90] He composed a number of poems in praise of Egypt and wrote two other general histories of the country. Tahtawi's work on ancient Egypt led Jean-François Champollion, the French scholar credited with deciphering Egyptian hieroglyphs, to run a progress report on Tahtawi's work during his tenure in Paris.^[91] He co-founded with his contemporary Ali Mubarak, the architect of the modern Egyptian school system, a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars like Suyuti and Maqrizi, who studied ancient Egyptian history, language and antiquities.^[92] Tahtawi held a conciliatory attitude to Europeans and encouraged his compatriots to invite Europeans to come and teach the modern sciences in Egypt, drawing on the example of Pharaoh Psamtek I who had enlisted the Greeks' help in organizing the Egyptian army. In his writings, Tahtawi conceived of modern Egyptians as the natural heirs of Egypt's ancient civilization. He urged his compatriots to demonstrate "love of country" and stressed the fundamental oneness of Egyptians irrespective of creed or religion. Image File history File links Egypt's_Awakening. ... Image File history File links Egypt's_Awakening. ... Mahmoud Mokhtar (1891 - March 28, 1934) was an Egyptian sculptor. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... For the Champollion comet rendezvous spacecraft, see Champollion (spacecraft). ... A section of the Papyrus of Ani showing cursive hieroglyphs. ... (1824-1893). ... The Great Sphinx of Giza against Khafres Pyramid at the Giza pyramid complex. ... Imam Al-Suyuti (c. ... Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn Ali ibn Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhammad al-Maqrizi (1364 - 1442); Arabic: â€Ž, was an Egyptian historian more commonly known as al-Maqrizi or Makrizi. ... Wahibre Nomen Psamtik Horus name Aaib Nebty name Neba Golden Horus Qenu Issues Nitocris I Died 610 BC Burial Sais Psammetichus, or Psamtik I, was the first of three kings of the Saite, or Twenty-sixth dynasty of Egypt. ...

Modernization

Among Mohammed Ali's successors, the most influential was the pro-European Isma'il Pasha who became khedive in 1863. Ismail was determined to make Egypt independent from Turkey. His reign witnessed the growth of the army, major education reforms, the founding of the Egyptian Museum and the Royal Opera House, the rise of an independent political press, a flourishing of the arts, and the inauguration of the Suez Canal. In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Its members were elected from across Egypt and eventually they came to have an important influence on governmental affairs. Village headsmen were part of the Assembly and came to exert increasing political and economic influence over the countryside.^[93] Several generations of Egyptians exposed to the ideas of constitutionalism made up the emerging intellectual and political milieu that slowly filled the ranks of the government, the army and institutions which had long been dominated by an aristocracy of Turks, Greeks, Circassians and Armenians. These Egyptians were to have the greatest impact on the struggle for national independence and the articulation of Egyptian nationalism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Image File history File links Silk_weavers. ... Image File history File links Silk_weavers. ... Ismail Pasha Ismail Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (December 31, 1830â€“March 2, 1895) (Arabic: Ø¥Ø³Ù…Ø§Ø¹ÙŠÙ„ Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ø§), was khedive of Egypt from 1863 until he was removed at the behest of the British in 1879. ... Ismail Pasha Ismail Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (December 31, 1830â€“March 2, 1895) (Arabic: Ø¥Ø³Ù…Ø§Ø¹ÙŠÙ„ Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ø§), was khedive of Egypt from 1863 until he was removed at the behest of the British in 1879. ... For the HMS Khedive, see USS Cordova. ... Main entrance of the Egyptian Museum The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, in Cairo, Egypt, is home to the most extensive collection of pharaonic antiquities in the world. ... The Khedivial Opera House or Royal Opera House was the original opera house in Cairo, Egypt. ... For other uses, see Suez (disambiguation). ... Constitutionalism is the limitation of government by law. ... Circassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess (Ã‡erkes), and is not the self-designation of any people. ...

Ismail's massive modernization campaign left Egypt indebted to European powers, leading to increased European meddling in Egyptian internal affairs. Meanwhile, secret groups made up of Egyptian notables, ministers, journalists and army officers were organized across the country to oppose the increasing European influence.^[94] When the British deposed of Ismail and installed his son Tawfik, the now Egyptian-dominated army reacted violently, staging a revolt led by Minister of War Ahmed Urabi, self-styled el-Masri ('the Egyptian'), against the Khedive, the Turko-Circassian elite, and the European stronghold. The revolt was a military failure and British forces occupied Egypt in 1882. Technically, Egypt was still part of the Ottoman Empire with the Mohammed Ali family ruling the country, though now with British supervision and according to British directives. The Egyptian army was disbanded and a smaller army commanded by British officers was installed in its place. The key British official in Egypt was the Consul-General, a post first held by Sir Evelyn Baring. Tewfik Pasha Tewfik Pasha (Tawfiq of Egypt) (1852-1892) (Arabic: Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ ØªÙˆÙÙŠÙ‚ Ø¨Ø§Ø´Ø§) was a khedive of Egypt. ... The Urabi Revolt was an uprising in Egypt in 1881-82 against the Khedive and European influence in the country. ... Colonel Ahmad Urabi (April 1, 1841 - September 21, 1911), (Arabic: Ø£ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø¹Ø±Ø§Ø¨ÙŠ) also known as Urabi Pasha or Orabi Pasha, was an Egyptian army general who revolted against the khedive and European domination of Egypt in 1879 in what has become known as the Urabi Revolt. ... September 13, 1882. ... Ottoman redirects here. ... Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer, by Leslie Ward, 1902. ...

Liberal age

Egyptian self-government, education, and the continued plight of Egypt's peasant majority deteriorated most significantly under British occupation. Slowly, an organized national movement for independence began to form. In its beginnings, it took the form of an Azhar-led religious reform movement that was more concerned with the social conditions of Egyptian society. It gathered momentum between 1882 and 1906, ultimately leading to a resentment against European occupation.^[95] Sheikh Muhammad Abduh, the son of a Delta farmer who was briefly exiled for his participation in the Urabi revolt and a future Azhar Mufti, was its most notable advocate. Abduh called for a reform of Egyptian Muslim society and formulated the modernist interpretations of Islam that took hold among younger generations of Egyptians. Among these were Mustafa Kamil and Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism. Mustafa Kamil had been a student activist in the 1890s involved in the creation of a secret nationalist society that called for British evacuation from Egypt. He was famous for coining the popular expression, "If I had not been an Egyptian, I would have wished to become one." Image File history File links Mustafa_Kamil. ... Image File history File links Mustafa_Kamil. ... Mustafa Kamil Pasha MustafÄ KÄmil Pasha (Arabic: ) (August 14, 1874, Cairo, Egypt â€“ February 10, 1908, Cairo) was an Egyptian political figure and publisher. ... Mohammed Abduh Muhammad Abduh (or Muhammad Abduh) (Arabic: Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø¹Ø¨Ø¯Ù‡ ) (Nile Delta, 1849 - Alexandria, July 11, 1905, ) was an Egyptian jurist, religious scholar and liberal reformer known as the founder of Islamic Modernism. ... A Mufti (Arabic: Ù…ÙØªÙ‰ ) is an Islamic scholar who is an interpreter or expounder of Islamic law (Sharia), capable of issuing fataawa (plural of fatwa). // Role of a Mufti in governments In theocracies like Saudi Arabia and Iran, and in some countries where the constitution is based on sharia law, such... For Christian theological modernism, see Liberal Christianity and Modernism (Roman Catholicism). ... For people named Islam, see Islam (name). ... Mustafa Kamil Pasha MustafÄ KÄmil Pasha (Arabic: ) (August 14, 1874, Cairo, Egypt â€“ February 10, 1908, Cairo) was an Egyptian political figure and publisher. ... Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed (15 January 1872-1963) is one of the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism, and the architect of secular Egyptian nationalist ideology. ...

Egyptian nationalist sentiment reached a high point after the 1906 Dinshaway Incident, when following an altercation between a group of British soldiers and Egyptian farmers, four of the farmers were hanged while others were condemned to public flogging. Dinshaway, a watershed in the history of Egyptian anti-colonial resistance, galvanized Egyptian opposition against the British, culminating in the founding of the first two political parties in Egypt: the secular, liberal Umma (the Nation, 1907) headed by Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, and the more radical, pro-Islamic Watani Party (Nationalist Party, 1908) headed by Mustafa Kamil. Lutfi was born to a family of farmers in the Delta province of Daqahliya in 1872. He was educated at al-Azhar where he attended lectures by Mohammed Abduh. Abduh came to have a profound influence on Lutfi's reformist thinking in later years. In 1907, he founded the Umma Party newspaper, el-Garida, whose statement of purpose read: "El-Garida is a purely Egyptian party which aims to defend Egyptian interests of all kinds."^[96] Image File history File links Lutfi_elsayed. ... Image File history File links Lutfi_elsayed. ... Cairo University, the biggest in Africa Cairo University (formerly Fouad the First University) is an institute of higher education located in Giza, Egypt. ... Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed (15 January 1872-1963) is one of the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism, and the architect of secular Egyptian nationalist ideology. ... Year 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ... The Dinshawai Incident occurred in Egypt in June 1906. ... It has been suggested that Benign colonialism be merged into this article or section. ... Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed (15 January 1872-1963) is one of the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism, and the architect of secular Egyptian nationalist ideology. ... Ad Daqahliyah is an Egyptian governorate lying northeast of Cairo. ... Year 1872 (MDCCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ...

Both the People and Nationalist parties came to dominate Egyptian politics until World War I, but the new leaders of the national movement for independence following four arduous years of war (in which Great Britain declared Egypt a British protectorate) were closer to the secular, liberal principles of Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed and the People's Party. Prominent among these was Saad Zaghlul who led the new movement through the Wafd Party. â€œThe Great War â€ redirects here. ... This article is about states protected and/or dominated by a foreign power. ... Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed (15 January 1872-1963) is one of the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism, and the architect of secular Egyptian nationalist ideology. ... Saad Zaghlul (also: Saad Zaglul, Sad Zaghlul Pasha ibn Ibrahim, etc. ... In post-World War I Egypt, the term wafd refers to a delegation, and more specifically the one that had the direct goal of achieving the complete and total independence of Egypt. ...

Saad Zaghlul held several ministerial positions before he was elected to the Legislative Assembly and organized a mass movement demanding an end to the British Protectorate. He garnered such massive popularity among the Egyptian people that he came to be known as 'Father of the Egyptians'. When on March 8, 1919 the British arrested Zaghlul and his associates and exiled them to Malta, the Egyptian people staged their first modern revolution. Demonstrations and strikes across Egypt by students, civil servants, merchants, peasants, workers, religious leaders; by Egyptian women; by Copts as well as Muslims became such a daily occurrence that normal life was brought to a halt.^[97] The uprising in the Egyptian countryside was more violent, involving attacks on British military installations, civilian facilities and personnel. By the end of March, it was apparent that the Wafd had gained countrywide support leading London to issue a unilateral declaration of Egyptian independence on February 22, 1922. Image File history File links 1919_revolution. ... Image File history File links 1919_revolution. ... Public riot during the 1919 Revolution. ... Saad Zaghlul (also: Saad Zaglul, Sad Zaghlul Pasha ibn Ibrahim, etc. ... Public riot during the 1919 Revolution. ... This article is about the capital of England and the United Kingdom. ...

The Wafd Party drafted a new Constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary representative system. Egyptian independence at this stage was provisional, as British forces continued to be physically present on Egyptian soil. Saad Zaghlul became the first popularly-elected Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924, and in 1936 the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. Many cultural and economic developments accompanied the inter-war period. New forces that came to prominence were the Muslim Brotherhood and the Young Egypt Party, which attracted more radical elements of Egyptian society. In 1920, Banque Misr (Bank of Egypt) was founded by Talaat Pasha Harb as "an Egyptian bank for Egyptians only"^[98] which restricted shareholding to native Egyptians. Bank Misr helped finance various new Egyptian-owned businesses, including textile factories, insurance, publishing and tourism companies, along with Egypt's national airline EgyptAir. The 1923 Constitution was a previous working constitution of Egypt during the period 1923-1952. ... States currently utilizing parliamentary systems are denoted in red and orangeâ€”the former being constitutional monarchies where authority is vested in a parliament, and the latter being parliamentary republics whose parliaments are effectively supreme over a separate head of state. ... In 1936 a treaty between Britain and Egypt was signed which became known as the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936. ... The Muslim Brothers (Arabic: Ø§Ù„Ø¥Ø®ÙˆØ§Ù† Ø§Ù„Ù…Ø³Ù„Ù…ÙˆÙ† al-ikhwÄn al-muslimÅ«n, full title The Society of the Muslim Brothers, often simply Ø§Ù„Ø¥Ø®ÙˆØ§Ù† al-ikhwÄn, the Brotherhood or MB) is a world-wide Sunni Islamist movement and the worlds largest, most influential Islamist group[1]. The MB is the largest political... Young Egypt Party (Arabic: Hizb Misr El-Fatah) is a small egyptian political party, with the membership of some 225 members. ... Banque Misr (Arabic: Ø¨Ù†Ùƒ Ù…ØµØ±) (Translated: The Bank of Egypt) is an Egyptian bank founded by Talaat Pasha Harb in 1920. ... Talaat Pasha Harb is one of the leading characters in Egypts modern history. ... EgyptAir Airlines Company, operating as EgyptAir (Arabic: Ù…ØµØ± Ù„Ù„Ø·ÙŠØ±Ø§Ù†, Misr Lel-Tayaran) is the Cairo-based national airline of Egypt. ...

Under the parliamentary monarchy, Egypt reached the peak of its modern intellectual Renaissance that was started by Rifa'a el-Tahtawy nearly a century earlier. The most prominent Egyptian thinkers and writers of modern history belonged to this period. Among those who set the intellectual tone of a newly independent Egypt, in addition to Muhammad Abduh and Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, were Qasim Amin, Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Taha Hussein, Abbas el-'Akkad, Tawfiq el-Hakeem, and Salama Moussa. They delineated a liberal outlook for their country expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, secularism, an evolutionary view of the world and faith in science to bring progress to human society.^[99] This period was looked upon with fondness by future generations of Egyptians as a Golden Age of Egyptian liberalism, openness, and an Egypt-centered attitude that put the country's interests center stage. Image File history File links Flag_of_Egypt_1922. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Egypt_1922. ... Mohammed Abduh Muhammad Abduh (or Muhammad Abduh) (Arabic: Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø¹Ø¨Ø¯Ù‡ ) (Nile Delta, 1849 - Alexandria, July 11, 1905, ) was an Egyptian jurist, religious scholar and liberal reformer known as the founder of Islamic Modernism. ... Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed (15 January 1872-1963) is one of the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism, and the architect of secular Egyptian nationalist ideology. ... Qasim Amin (1863-1908) was an Egyptian jurist, one of the founders of the Egyptian National Movement and Cairo University. ... Muhammad Husayn Haykal (Arabic: ) ) was an Egyptian writer, journalist, politician and a former minister of Education in Egypt. ... Taha Hussein (November 14, 1889â€”October 28, 1973) (Arabic: ) (nicknamed the dean of Arabic literature)[2]was one of the most influential Egyptian writers and intellectuals. ... Abbas Mahmoud el-Akkad (Arabic: Ø¹Ø¨Ø§Ø³ Ù…ØÙ…ÙˆØ¯ Ø§Ù„Ø¹Ù‚Ø§Ø¯) (June 28, 1889â€“March 12, 1964) was one of the most famous Egyptian writers. ... Tawfiq al-Hakim,in Arabic ØªÙˆÙÙŠÙ‚ Ø§Ù„ØÙƒÙŠÙ…, the son of a wealthy Egyptian judge, was born in Alexandria in 1898. ... Salama Moussa (Arabic: Ø³Ù„Ø§Ù…Ù‡ Ù…ÙˆØ³Ù‰ ) (1887 - 1958) was a famous writer and thinker of the Arab world. ... This article is about secularism. ... This article is about evolution in biology. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ...

When Egyptian novelist and Noble Prize laureate Naguib Mahfouz died in 2006, many Egyptians felt that perhaps the last of the Greats of Egypt's golden age had passed away. In his dialogues with close associate and journalist Mohamed Salmawy, published as Mon Égypte, Mahfouz had this to say: The Robert L. Noble Prize (not to be confused with the Nobel Prize) is awarded each year by the National Cancer Institute of Canada to researchers whose contributions have led to a significant advance in cancer research. ... This article is about the Egyptian novelist. ...

Republic

Increased involvement by the King in parliamentary affairs, government corruption, and the widening gap between the country's rich and poor led to the eventual toppling of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament through a coup d'état by a group of army officers in 1952. The Egyptian Republic was declared on June 18, 1953 with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. After Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 and later put under house arrest by Gamal Abdel Nasser, the real architect of the 1952 movement, mass protests by Egyptians erupted against the forced resignation of what became a popular symbol of the new régime.^[101] Nevertheless, Nasser assumed power as President and began a nationalization process that initially had profound effects on the socioeconomic strata of Egyptian society. According to one historian, "Egypt had, for the first time since 343 BC, been ruled not by a Macedonian Greek, nor a Roman, nor an Arab, nor a Turk, but by an Egyptian."^[102] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (492x672, 253 KB) Summary President Mohamed Naguib, the first president of Egypt. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (492x672, 253 KB) Summary President Mohamed Naguib, the first president of Egypt. ... Template:Infobox President Muhammad Naguib (Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ù†Ø¬ÙŠØ¨ in Arabic; 20 February 1901 â€“ 29 August 1984) was the first President of the Republic of Egypt. ... Farouk I of Egypt (Arabic: ÙØ§Ø±ÙˆÙ‚ Ø§Ù„Ø£ÙˆÙ„ FÄrÅ«q al-Awwal) â€Ž (February 11, 1920 â€“ March 18, 1965), was the tenth ruler from the Muhammad Ali Dynasty and the penultimate King of Egypt and Sudan, succeeding his father, Fuad I, in 1936. ... Coup redirects here. ... In Egypt, the clandestine revolutionary Free Officers Movement was founded by Colonel Gamal Abdul Nasser in the aftermath of Egypts sense of national disgrace from the War of 1948. ... Template:Infobox President Muhammad Naguib (Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ù†Ø¬ÙŠØ¨ in Arabic; 20 February 1901 â€“ 29 August 1984) was the first President of the Republic of Egypt. ... Gamal Abdel Nasser (Arabic: - ; Masri: Ø¬Ù…Ø§Ù„ Ø¹Ø¨Ø¯ Ø§Ù„Ù†Ø§ØµØ± - also transliterated as Jamal Abd al-Naser, Jamal Abd an-Nasser and other variants; January 15, 1918 â€“ September 28, 1970) was the President of Egypt from 1954 until his death in 1970. ... This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... Nationalization, also spelled nationalisation, is the act by which a nation takes possession of assets without requiring the owners consent, with or without payment of compensation. ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Languages Arabic other minority languages Religions Predominantly Sunni Islam, as well as Shia Islam, Greek Orthodoxy, Greek Catholicism, Roman Catholicism, Alawite Islam, Druzism, Ibadi Islam, and Judaism Footnotes a Mainly in Antakya. ...

Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal leading to the 1956 Suez Crisis. Egypt became increasingly involved in regional affairs until three years after the 1967 Six Day War, in which Egypt lost the Sinai to Israel, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Sadat revived an Egypt Above All orientation, switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and launched the Infitah economic reform policy. Like his predecessor, he also clamped down on religious and leftist opposition alike. In 1977, Sadat made a historic visit to Israel leading to the signing of the 1978 peace treaty, which was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians,^[103] in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. Sadat was finally assassinated in Cairo by a fundamentalist soldier in 1981, and was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak. For other uses, see Suez (disambiguation). ... Combatants Israel United Kingdom France Egypt Commanders Moshe Dayan Charles Keightley Pierre Barjot Gamal Abdel Nasser Abdel Hakim Amer Strength 175,000 Israeli 45,000 British 34,000 French 70,000 Casualties 197 Israeli KIA 56 British KIA 91 British WIA 10 French KIA 43 French WIA 650 KIA[1... The 1967 Arab-Israeli War, also known as the Six-Day War or June War, was fought between Israel and its Arab neighbors Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. ... Sinai Peninsula, Gulf of Suez (west), Gulf of Aqaba (east) from Space Shuttle STS-40 For other uses of the word Sinai, please see: Sinai (disambiguation). ... Muhammad Anwar Al-Sadat (Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø£Ù†ÙˆØ±Ø§Ù„Ø³Ø§Ø¯Ø§Øª in Arabic) (December 25, 1918 â€“ October 6, 1981) was an Egyptian politician and served as the third President of Egypt from September 28, 1970 until his assassination on October 6, 1981. ... For other uses, see Cold War (disambiguation). ... Infitah is an Arabic word meaning open door and refers to Egyptian President Anwar Sadat opening the door to private investment in Egypt. ... Celebrating the signing of the Camp David Accords: Menachem Begin, Jimmy Carter, Anwar Al Sadat. ... For other uses, see Cairo (disambiguation). ... Muhammad Hosni Said Mubarak (Arabic: Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ ØØ³Ù†Ù‰ Ø³ÙŠØ¯ Ù…Ø¨Ø§Ø±Ùƒ Muá¸¥ammad á¸¤usnÄ« MubÄrak), commonly known as Hosni Mubarak (Arabic: ØØ³Ù†Ù‰ Ù…Ø¨Ø§Ø±Ùƒ á¸¤usnÄ« MubÄrak), has been the President of Egypt since 14 October 1981. ...

President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since October 14, 1981, currently serving his fifth term in office. Although power is ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, in practice it rests almost solely with the President. In late February 2005, Mubarak announced in a surprise television broadcast that he had ordered the reform of the country's presidential election law, paving the way for multi-candidate polls. For the first time since the 1952 coup d'état, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates. However, the new law placed draconian restrictions on the filing for presidential candidacies, designed to prevent well-known candidates such as Ayman Nour from standing against Mubarak, and paved the road for his easy re-election victory. Image File history File links Kefaya_demo. ... Image File history File links Kefaya_demo. ... Kifayas logo. ... Muhammad Hosni Said Mubarak (Arabic: Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ ØØ³Ù†Ù‰ Ø³ÙŠØ¯ Ù…Ø¨Ø§Ø±Ùƒ Muá¸¥ammad á¸¤usnÄ« MubÄrak), commonly known as Hosni Mubarak (Arabic: ØØ³Ù†Ù‰ Ù…Ø¨Ø§Ø±Ùƒ á¸¤usnÄ« MubÄrak), has been the President of Egypt since 14 October 1981. ... The President of the Arab Republic of Egypt is the elected Head of State of Egypt. ... is the 287th day of the year (288th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 1981 (MCMLXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link displays the 1981 Gregorian calendar). ... A multi-party system is a type of party system. ... States with semi-presidential systems are shown in yellow The semi-presidential system is a system of government in which a prime minister and a president are both active participants in the day-to-day functioning of the administration of a country. ... Ayman Abd El-Aziz Nour (Arabic: ) is an Egyptian politician, a former member of that countrys Parliament and chairman of the al-Ghad party (Tomorrow Party). He became famous around the world following his January 2005 imprisonment by the government of President Hosni Mubarak, which was widely understood as...

Most Egyptians today are skeptical about the process of democratization and fear that power may ultimately be transferred to the President's first son, Gamal Mubarak. Newspapers, however, have since exhibited an increasing degree of freedom in criticizing the President. In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change or simply Kifaya was founded as a grassroots mobilization of Egyptians from different socioeconomic, political and religious backgrounds seeking a return to democracy, a transparent government and greater equality and freedom. Democratization (British English: Democratisation) is the transition from an authoritarian or a semi-authoritarian political system to a democratic political system. ... Gamal Mubarak (Arabic: Ø¬Ù…Ø§Ù„ Ù…Ø¨Ø§Ø±Ùƒ ), or Gamal El Deen Muhammad Hosni Saiid Mubarak (Arabic:Ø¬Ù…Ø§Ù„ Ø§Ù„Ø¯ÙŠÙ† Ù…ØÙ…Ø¯ ØØ³Ù†Ù‰ Ø³ÙŠØ¯ Ù…Ø¨Ø§Ø±Ùƒ), born 1963, is the younger of the two sons of current Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak and Mrs. ... Kifayas logo. ...

The long road to Egyptian independence took more than 20 centuries to achieve, and for many Egyptians it is still a work in progress. Egyptians have endured as a people for more than 5,000 years thanks in large part to Egypt's unique geography. They take pride in their pharaonic heritage and in their descent from one of mankind's earliest civilizations.

Pharaonism is an ideology that rose to prominence in Egypt in the 1920s and 1930s. ...

Culture

Egyptian culture boasts five millennia of recorded history. Ancient Egypt was among the earliest and greatest civilizations during which the Egyptians maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Near East and Africa. After the Pharaonic era, the Egyptians themselves came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity and Islamic culture. Today, many aspects of ancient Egyptian culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture, itself with roots in Ancient Egypt. The Culture of Egypt has five thousand years of recorded history. ... Khafres Pyramid and the Great Sphinx of Giza, built about 2550 BC during the Fourth Dynasty of the Old Kingdom,[1] are enduring symbols of the civilization of ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt was a civilization in Northeastern Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... Inhabitants of the Near East, late nineteenth century. ... A world map showing the continent of Africa Africa is the worlds second-largest and second most-populous continent, after Asia. ... The term Hellenistic (derived from HÃ©llÄ“n, the Greeks traditional self-described ethnic name) was established by the German historian Johann Gustav Droysen to refer to the spreading of Greek culture over the non-Greek people that were conquered by Alexander the Great. ... Jesus Christ in a Coptic icon. ... Muslim culture is a term primarily used in secular academia to describe all cultural practices common to historically Islamic peoples. ... For this articles equivalent regarding the East, see Eastern culture. ...

Surnames

It is common for people of Egyptian origins to have surnames beginning with "Ba/Be" which is the Egyptian masculine singular definite article; for example, Bayoumi بيومي ("of the sea", i.e. Lower Egyptian) (variations: Baioumi, Bayoumi, Baioumy), Bashandi بشندي , Bakhum باخوم ("the eagle"), Bekhit, Bahur ("of Horus") and Banoub بانوب ("of Anubis"). The name Shenouda شنوده, which is very common among Copts (e.g., it is the name of the present Egyptian Pope as well as that of one of the Coptic Church's foremost saints), means "God is living". Hence names, and many toponyms, may end with -nouda or -nuti which is the Egyptian word for God. In addition, Egyptian families often derive their name from places in Egypt, such as el-Minyawi المنياوي from Minya and Suyuti السيوطي from Asyut; or from one of the local Sufi orders such as el-Shazli الشاذلي and el-Sawy الصاوي. Tamer Bayoumi (Arabic:) (born April 12, 1982) is an Egyptian taekwondo athlete who won a bronze medal in the 58 kg weight class at the 2004 Summer Olympics. ... For other uses, see Horus (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Anubis (disambiguation). ... Religions Coptic Orthodox Christianity, Coptic Catholicism, Protestantism Scriptures Bible Languages Mari, Coptic, Arabic, English, French, German A Copt (Coptic: , literally: Egyptian Christian) is a native Egyptian Christian. ... His Holiness Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria, born Nazeer Gayed, has been Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church since November 14, 1971. ... Shenoute is considered to have been very austere as a person and an author of some of the best Coptic prose that has come down to us. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Map of Egypt showing Al Minya Governorate. ... Imam Al-Suyuti (c. ... Location of Asyut on the map of Egypt. ... Sufism (Arabic تصوف taṣawwuf) is a system of esoteric philosophy commonly associated with Islam. ...

With the adoption of Christianity and eventually Islam, Egyptians began to take on names associated with these religions. Many Egyptian surnames also became Hellenized and Arabized, meaning they were altered to sound Greek or Arabic. This was done by the addition of the Greek suffix -ios to Egyptian names; for example, Bakhum > Pachomios; or by adding the Arabic definite article el (Classical Arabic al) to names such as Baymoui > el-Bayoumi. Names starting with the Egyptian affix bu ("place") were often Arabized to abu ("father of"); for example, Busiri بوصيري ("of the place of Osiris") occasionally became Abusir and al-Busiri. Some people might also have surnames like el-Shami الشامي ("the Levantine") indicating a possible Levantine origin, or Turkish Dawidar دويدار, an Ottoman-Mamluk remnant. Conversely, some Levantines might carry the surname el-Masri ("the Egyptian") suggesting a possible Egyptian extraction. The Egyptian peasantry, the fellahin, are often likely to retain indigenous names with little to no change given their relative isolation throughout the country's history. Hellenization (or Hellenisation) is a term used to describe a cultural change in which something non-Greek becomes Greek (Hellenistic civilization). ... Arabization is the gradual transformation of an area into one that speaks Arabic and is part of the Arab culture. ... Arabic redirects here. ... BÅ«sÄ«rÄ« (AbÅ« AbdallÄh Muhammad ibn SaÄ«d ul-BÅ«sÄ«rÄ«) (1211â€“1294), Egyptian poet, lived in Egypt, where he wrote under the patronage of Ibn Hinna, the vizier. ... For other uses, see Osiris (disambiguation). ...

Language

The ancient Egyptian language constitutes an independent branch of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum. Its closest relatives are the Berber, Semitic, and Beja groups of languages. Written records of Egyptian have been dated from about 3200 BC, making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages. The language survived in its Coptic stage of development until the 17th century AD, and while it ceased to be spoken, it continues to be the language of liturgy in the Coptic Church. Attempts at revitalization are currently underway by some local groups. Spoken in: Ancient Egypt Language extinction: evolved into Demotic by 600 BC, into Coptic by AD 200, and was extinct by the 17th century Language family: Afro-Asiatic Egyptian Writing system: hieroglyphs, cursive hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic (later, occasionally Arabic script in government translations) Language codes ISO 639-1: none... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ... Egyptian Arabic (MarÄ« Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) is part of the Arabic macrolanguage of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Ebers medical papyrus giving the treatment of cancer. ... Development of hieratic script from hieroglyphs; after Champollion. ... Spoken in: Ancient Egypt Language extinction: evolved into Demotic by 600 BC, into Coptic by AD 200, and was extinct by the 17th century Language family: Afro-Asiatic Egyptian Writing system: hieroglyphs, cursive hieroglyphs, hieratic, and demotic (later, occasionally Arabic script in government translations) Language codes ISO 639-1: none... Map showing the distribution of Afro-Asiatic languages The Afro-Asiatic languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout North Africa, East Africa, the Sahel, and Southwest Asia. ... A phylum is a term in linguistics used for language classification which denotes the highest recognized level of hierarchy. ... The Berber languages (or Tamazight) are a group of closely related languages mainly spoken in Morocco and Algeria. ... 14th century BC diplomatic letter in Akkadian, found in Tell Amarna. ... Beja (also called Bedawi, Bedauye, To Bedawie) is an Afro-Asiatic language of the southern coast of the Red Sea, spoken by about two million nomads in parts of Egypt, Sudan, and Eritrea. ... (33rd century BC - 32nd century BC - 31st century BC - other centuries) (5th millennium BC - 4th millennium BC - 3rd millennium BC) Events Varna nekropol: The oldest gold in the world found near Varna lake. ... The Coptic language is a direct descendant of the ancient Egyptian language which was once written in Egyptian hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts. ... (16th century - 17th century - 18th century - more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 17th century was that century which lasted from 1601-1700. ... A liturgy is the customary public worship of a religious group, according to their particular traditions. ... Liberal Egyptian Party (Arabic: Ø§Ù„ØØ²Ø¨ Ø§Ù„Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ Ø§Ù„Ù„ÙŠØ¨Ø±Ø§Ù„ÙŠ) is a grassroots movement and a secular political party in Egypt. ...

The national language of Egypt today is Egyptian Arabic. Its earliest recorded history comes in the form of a document by a sixteenth century linguist writing about the peculiarities of the speech of the Egyptian people. This suggests that the language by then was spoken by the majority of Egyptians. It is represented in a body of vernacular literature comprising novels, plays and poetry published over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Classical Arabic is also a significant cultural element in Egyptian culture, as Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated. A national language is a language (or language variant, i. ... Egyptian Arabic (MarÄ« Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) is part of the Arabic macrolanguage of the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. ... Vernacular literature is literature written in the vernacular - the speech of the common people. ...

Contribution to humanity

The Egyptians have played a significant role in the development of arts and sciences, and have contributed some of the world's most important inventions. The irrigation methods developed by early Egyptians led to cooperation and the development of the first centralized government based on professional knowledge, a rule of hydraulic engineers. The earliest evidence (c. 1600 BC) of traditional empiricism and the scientific method is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri. Egyptian inventions include a 365-day calendar, 24-hour division of the day and hydraulic cement. The Arts is a broad subdivision of culture, comprised of many expressive disciplines. ... For the scientific journal named Science, see Science (journal). ... Engineering is the application of scientific and technical knowledge to solve human problems. ... In philosophy generally, empiricism is a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience, especially sensory perception, in the formation of ideas, while discounting the notion of innate ideas. ... Scientific method is a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. ... Plates vi & vii of the Edwin Smith Papyrus at the Rare Book Room, New York Academy of Medicine The Edwin Smith papyrus is the worlds earliest known medical document, written in hieratic around the 17th century BCE, but thought to be based on material from a thousand years earlier. ... Ebers medical papyrus giving the treatment of cancer. ... The ancient civil Egyptian Calendar, known as the Annus Vagus or Wandering Year, had a year that was 365 days long, consisting of 12 months of 30 days each, plus 5 extra days at the end of the year. ... For other uses, see Cement (disambiguation). ...

Today, Egypt has the highest number of Nobel Prize Laureates in Africa and of any country in the Muslim world. The Nobel Prize (Swedish: ) was established in Alfred Nobels will in 1895, and it was first awarded in Physics, Chemistry, Physiology or Medicine, Literature, and Peace in 1901. ...

See Egypt and Culture of Egypt for information on Egyptian literature, music and arts Abu Kamil Shuja ibn Aslam ibn Muhammad ibn Shuja (c. ... This article is about the branch of mathematics. ... For the number sequence, see Fibonacci number. ... Saint Anthony the Great (c. ... Monasticism (from Greek: monachos â€” a solitary person) is the religious practice in which one renounces worldly pursuits in order to fully devote ones life to spiritual work. ... Athanasius of Alexandria (Greek: Î‘Î¸Î±Î½Î¬ÏƒÎ¹Î¿Ï‚, AthanÃ¡sios; c 293 â€“ May 2, 373) was a Christian bishop, the Bishop of Alexandria, in the fourth century. ... This article is about the Christian scriptures. ... Djer is the second or third [1] [2]Egyptian king of the first dynasty. ... Dhul-Nun al-Misri (Arabic:Ø°Ùˆ Ø§Ù„Ù†ÙˆÙ† Ø§Ù„Ù…ØµØ±ÙŠ) (d. ... Sufism is a mystic tradition within Islam that encompasses a diverse range of beliefs and practices dedicated to Divine love and the cultivation of the elements of the Divine within the individual human being. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Farouk El-Baz Farouk El-Baz is an Egyptian-born scientist who worked with NASA training astronauts in lunar observations. ... Project Apollo was a series of human spaceflight missions undertaken by the United States of America (NASA) using the Apollo spacecraft and Saturn launch vehicle, conducted during the years 1961 â€“ 1975. ... Dr. Eman Ghoneim (Arabic: Ø¥ÙŠÙ…Ø§Ù† ØºÙ†ÙŠÙ…) is an experienced Egyptian geomorphologist with a primary focus on the application of Geographical Information Systems (GIS), Remote Sensing and the use of Hydrologic modeling in Flash flood hazard and Groundwater exploration in arid environments. ... Surface of the Earth Geomorphology is the study of landforms, including their origin and evolution, and the processes that shape them. ... Dr. Zahi Hawass signs an autograph (Aug. ... This article is about the ancient Egyptian official. ... Origen Origen (Greek: ÅŒrigÃ©nÄ“s, 185â€“ca. ... Riad Abdel-Magid Higazy (1919â€“1967) was an Egyptian earth scientist. ... Sameera Moussa Dr. Sameera Moussa (Arabic: Ø³Ù…ÙŠØ±Ù‡ Ù…ÙˆØ³Ù‰ ) ( March 3, 1917â€“August 5, 1952) the Egyptian nuclear scientist , she held a doctorate in atomic radiation and worked to make the medical use of nuclear technology affordable to all, although her research also made nuclear weapons more affordable. ... Sir Magdi Habib Yacoub FRS, FRCS (Arabic: ), (born November 16, 1935), is an eminent heart surgeon. ... Ibn Yunus (Arabic: Ø§Ø¨Ù† ÙŠÙˆÙ†Ø³) (full name, Abu al-Hasan Ali abi Said Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad ibn Yunus al-Sadafi al-Misri) (c. ... Ibn Yunas is the remains of a flooded lunar crater. ... Ahmed Zewail Ahmed Hassan Zewail (Arabic: Ø£ØÙ…Ø¯ Ø²ÙˆÙŠÙ„) (born February 26, 1946) is an Egyptian American chemist, and the winner of the 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on femtochemistry. ... Femtochemistry is the science that studies chemical reactions on extremely short timescales, approximately 10â€“15 seconds (this is one femtosecond, hence the name). ... Omar Samra is the first Egyptian to climb Mount Everest. ... Everest redirects here. ... The Culture of Egypt has five thousand years of recorded history. ...

Contents

Names of the Egyptians

Demographics and society

Origins

History

Prehistory

Dynastic period

Old Kingdom

Middle Kingdom

New Kingdom

Late period

Society

Persian Achaemenid period

Graeco-Roman period

Byzantine and Coptic Christian period

Arabic and Islamic period

Modern independence

Renaissance

Modernization

Liberal age

Republic

Culture

Surnames

Language

Contribution to humanity

See also

References

Contents

Names of the Egyptians GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Demographics and society

Origins

History

Prehistory

Dynastic period

Old Kingdom

Middle Kingdom

New Kingdom

Late period

Society

Persian Achaemenid period

Graeco-Roman period

Byzantine and Coptic Christian period

Arabic and Islamic period

Modern independence

Renaissance

Modernization

Liberal age

Republic

Culture

Surnames

Language

Contribution to humanity

See also

References

Names of the Egyptians