"Evolution of Civilization" a portion of the mural by Edwin Blashfield (1895) above the Main Reading Room of the Library of Congress. The image suggests a special relationship between Egypt as the first and the U.S as the latest "civilization."^[1]

Egyptomania is a concept that describes the Western fascination with ancient Egyptian culture and history. Although this fascination goes back to a time immediately following the pharaonic period, "Egyptomania" specifically refers to the renewed interest in Egypt during the nineteenth century as a result of Napoleon's "Egyptian Campaign" (1798-1801) and, in particular, as a result of the extensive scientific study of Ancient Egyptian remains and culture inspired by this campaign. In addition to its aesthetic impact on literature, art and architecture, it also played a role in the discussion about race, gender and national identity. Egyptomania is of particular importance to US-American culture because of the way in which the example of ancient Egypt served to create a sense of independent nationhood during the nineteenth century^[2]. However, Egypt has had a significant impact on the cultural imagination of all Western Cultures^[3]. Image File history File links Evolution_of_Civilization. ... Image File history File links Evolution_of_Civilization. ... Salle des illustres, ceiling painting, by Jean André Rixens. ... Edwin Howland Blashfield (December 5, 1848 - 1936), American artist, was born in New York City. ... The Great Hall interior. ... Cities are a major hallmark of human civilization. ... See Occident (movement) for the French political movement. ... Khafres Pyramid (4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c. ... Pharaoh is a title used to refer to any ruler, usually male, of the Egyptian kingdom in the pre-Christian, pre-Islamic period. ... Alternative meaning: Nineteenth Century (periodical) (18th century — 19th century — 20th century — more centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 19th century was that century which lasted from 1801-1900 in the sense of the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see Napoleon (disambiguation). ... Khafres Pyramid (4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... The word gender describes the state of being male, female, or neither. ... For publications of this name, see also Nation (disambiguation) A nation is a community of people who live together in an area (or, more broadly, of their descendants who may now be dispersed); and who regard themselves, or are regarded by others, as sharing some common identity, to which certain... United States is the current Good Article Collaboration of the week! Please help to improve this article to the highest of standards. ... One of the most influential doctrines in history is that all humans are divided into groups called nations. ...

Culture

The famous Obelisk (Washington Monument) in Washington DC

Since the early nineteenth century, the fascination with ancient Egypt seems to have affected every field of American culture. Some of the most important areas of culture influenced by Egyptomania are literature, architecture, art, film, politics and religion. There were two important waves of Egyptomania in the nineteenth century, especially in arts and design, which were both caused by publications about Egypt that became very popular^[4]: Dominique Vivant, Baron de Denon, Voyage dans la Basse et la Haute Egypt (1802), and the Institute of Egypt's Description de l'Egypte (1809). Because of these publications, people became more and more interested in Egyptian culture and everything related to it. Ancient Egyptian images and representations were integrated into a wide variety of cultural sectors. They influenced the fine arts not just in the US but throughout the western world. Examples of this are the pyramid of glass and steel in front of the Louvre or Verdi's famous Aida. But Egyptian images and symbols also served for more trivial purposes, such as dessert services, furniture, decoration, commercial kitsch or even advertising^[5]. There were parties and public events that had Egypt as a motto, where people wore special costumes. In general, people were fascinated by everything that had the label Egypt attached to it. And even today, this kind of fascination for Egypt and all things Egyptian still exists. Many different exhibitions about Egyptian culture in museums all over the world demonstrate people's continued interest in it^[6]. Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1444x2254, 1518 KB) Summary Washington Monument Photo taken by Kmf164 on December 23, 2005. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Download high resolution version (1444x2254, 1518 KB) Summary Washington Monument Photo taken by Kmf164 on December 23, 2005. ... Khafres Pyramid (4th dynasty) and Great Sphinx of Giza (c. ... Dominique Vivant, Baron de Denon (4 January 1747 - 27 April 1825) was a French artist and archaeologist. ... IDescription de lÉgypte (English: Description of Egypt) is the monumental French comprehensive scientific description of ancient and modern Egypt as well as its natural history. ... The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre) in Paris, France, is the largest museum in the world. ... Giuseppe Verdi, by Giovanni Boldini, 1886 (National Gallery of Modern Art, Rome). ... // Introduction This article is about the marketing term, AIDA. For other uses of the term, see Aida (disambiguation). ... Kitsch is a German term that has been used to categorize art that is considered an inferior copy of an existing style. ... Billboards and street advertising in Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan, (2005) Advertising is the business of kayleigh selling her body for fried chicken drawing public attention to goods and services, and performed through a variety of media. ...

The Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas is a contemporary example for the enduring impact of Egyptian imagery.

Fascinated by Egyptian culture, American literature, visual art and architecture absorbed what was becoming general knowledge about ancient Egyptian culture, making use of this knowledge in the contemporary debate about national identity, race, and slavery. Certain characteristic elements of Egyptian culture became particularly symbolically charged. The mummy, for example, represented the fascination of the Americans with the living dead, reanimation, revenge and anxiety about race^[7]. This fascination went so far that 'unwrapping-a- mummy-parties' were organised, thus pushing the hysteria of the Americans with Egyptian myths further and further^[8]. The figure of Cleopatra, hieroglyphic writing and deciphering, and the pyramid as maze and tomb are other examples of how ancient Egypt has been productive in the West, and specifically in the United States since the nineteenth century. Well-known literary works that make use of these symbolic references to Egypt include "Some Words With a Mummy" by E. A. Poe^[9], "Lost In A Pyramid Or The Mummy’s curse" by Louisa May Alcott^[10] or The Marble Faun by Nathaniel Hawthorne. The impact of ancient Egyptian culture in architecture is called the Egyptian Revival, an important expression of neoclassicism in the United States. Well-known Egyptian images, forms and symbols were integrated in the contemporary style. This influence can best be seen in the architecture of cemeteries and prisons. Download high resolution version (750x750, 58 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (750x750, 58 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... The Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, United States, was one of the resort citys first fully-themed megaresorts. ... A mummy is a corpse whose skin and dried flesh have been preserved by either intentional or accidental exposure to chemicals, extreme cold or dryness, or airlessness. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... It has been suggested that Hieroglyph (French Wiki article) be merged into this article or section. ... Hello Steve. ... Louisa May Alcott Louisa May Alcott (November 29, 1832 – March 6, 1888) was an American novelist, best known for the novel Little Women, which she wrote in 1868. ... The Marble Faun (1860) was the last of the four major romances by Nathaniel Hawthorne. ... Nathaniel Hawthorne (July 4, 1804 - May 19, 1864) was a 19th century American novelist and short story writer. ... Egyptian Revial mausoleum of Maj. ... The neoclassical movement that produced Neoclassical architecture began in the mid-18th century, as a reaction against both the surviving Baroque and Rococo styles, and as a desire to return to the perceived purity of the arts of Rome, the more vague perception (ideal) of Ancient Greek arts (where almost...

Promotional poster for the 1999 film The Mummy.

Other examples of this influence are the Gold Pyramid House in Illinois or the famous Obelisk (Washington Monument) in Washington DC. Movies such as The Mummy (1999) and its sequel The Mummy Returns (2001) (and also, The Scorpion King in 2002) demonstrate that ancient Egypt and the discovery of its secrets is still a powerful point of reference for contemporary western cultures. Important scholarly texts about this phenomenon in American culture include Scott Trafton’s Egypt Land (2004) and M. J. Schueller’s U.S. Orientalism (1998). Image File history File links The_mummy. ... Image File history File links The_mummy. ... The Mummy is a film written and directed in 1999 by Stephen Sommers and starring Brendan Fraser and Rachel Weisz, with Arnold Vosloo as the reanimated mummy of the title. ... The Luxor obelisk in the Place de la Concorde in Paris An obelisk is a tall, thin, four-sided, tapering monument which ends in a pyramidal top. ... The Washington Monument at dusk For other Washington Monuments, see Washington Monuments (world). ... The Mummy is a film written and directed in 1999 by Stephen Sommers and starring Brendan Fraser and Rachel Weisz, with Arnold Vosloo as the reanimated mummy of the title. ... The Mummy Returns is a 2001 movie starring Brendan Fraser, Rachel Weisz, and is directed by Stephen Sommers. ... This article discusses the fictional film, for the factual pre-dynastic Egyptian pharaoh, see King Scorpion The Scorpion King is a 2002 movie starring The Rock (Dwayne Johnson), Michael Clarke Duncan, Kelly Hu and Grant Heslov, and is directed by Chuck Russell. ...

It is important to point out that this impact of ancient Egyptian culture and its characteristic features is a result of cultural projection, and its re-creations and interpretations of Egypt say more about the anxieties and desires of western cultures engaged in a colonialism that benefited them economically and symbolically than about the ancient culture itself. As such, Egyptomania is an integral part of a process of cultural appropriation that Edward Said has called "Orientalism" (in his seminal study under the same title). Edward Said Edward Wadie Said (November 1, 1935 – September 25, 2003; Arabic: ) was a well-known Palestinian American literary theorist, critic, and outspoken pro-Palestinian activist. ... Orientalism is the study of Near and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages and peoples by Western scholars. ... Orientalism (1978; 25th-anniversary edition 2003 ISBN 0671502484) is a 328-page study by Edward Said of a mostly British and French tradition, cultural apparatus, or style of thought based on the Orient/Occident distinction. ...

Science

Mummy of Ramesses II

In the early nineteenth century natural science based on Empiricism was still in its infancy. Though a lot of ground breaking discoveries were made, many ideas that were debated seriously by the intellectual community at that time may appear humorous at best, spurious and opportunistic at worst to observers from our time^{[citation needed]}. This is true also with regard to Egyptology: the great interest in Egypt and its history spawned enormous efforts that produced indispensable knowledge as for instance the deciphering of hieroglyphics by Jean-François Champollion in 1824. Yet much of the work in and on Egypt was not performed by full time scholars but by rich enthusiasts whose training and expertise did not quite match their interest^{[citation needed]}. Major amounts of knowledge have been destroyed by poorly documented excavations and poorly performed dissections. The popularity of Egyptology in educated circles led to strange phenomena, as for instance when amateur Egyptologists would organize "Mummy Parties", social gatherings with a pseudo scientific outlook, which consisted mainly of "unwrapping" a mummy purchased for the purpose by the host^{[citation needed]}. Image File history File links Rammumy. ... Image File history File links Rammumy. ... In philosophy generally, empiricism is a theory of knowledge emphasizing the role of experience. ... Jean-François Champollion For the Champollion comet rendezvous spacecraft, see Champollion (spacecraft). ... 1824 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ...

Another rather strange chapter of nineteenth century science that is relevant with regard to Egyptomania is Craniology, the study of the human cranium that claimed to be able to determine an individual's intelligence and even character. Egyptian mummies served as an abundant source for the object of study: skulls. Craniology was especially important with regard of the question, whether Egyptians were black of white, a debate lead in light of the justification of slavery (see below). The key figure for this period seems to be Samuel George Morton who founded the American School of Ethnology. He put forward the theory of Polygenesis claiming that there is not one but several human races who are in a hierarchical order with whites at the top and blacks at the bottom end of the scale. Although science today disapproves of Morton's findings it still revalidated his professional status, because Morton's American School was to a large degree responsible for the development of the current professional status of the sciences and the renunciation of puritan ideas of monogenesis and the Christian, clerical worldview which was common at the time^[11]. This article needs cleanup. ... Cranium can mean: The brain and surrounding skull, a part of the body. ... This article needs cleanup. ... Samuel George Morton (1799-1851) An American physician and natural scientist. ...

Race and national identity

Illustration from Types of Mankind, which shows a copy of an Egyptian wall painting used to 'prove' that there were different 'types' (or 'species') of humans as far back as ancient Egypt. Types uses this as support for its theory of polygenesis.

Egypt occupies a special location in-between historical and geographic regions: According to Richard White (historian), Egypt is not easily placed within Africa or Asia, or within the East or the West. Therefore, it seems as if Egypt is “everybody’s past”^[12]. The figure of Egypt has been an important point of reference in the development of national identity in the western World, though these processes of identity formation are complex and involve many factors. Racial identity is central to these processes, particularly in the United States, where the emerging sense of a distinct national identity and the increasing conflict over slavery were inseparably linked in the first half of the 19th century. Paschal Beverly Randolph crystallized the way in which Egypt served as a model for the new nation when he said, "For America, read Africa; for the United States, Egypt" (1863). Among the large variety of ethnic groups that formed the population of the United States the common denominator was being non-black, being able to define oneself utilizing a binaristic Other. Historically, the attempt to scientifically establish a racial hierarchy as undertaken by the American School of Ethnology evoked an understanding of whiteness as the natural American national identity^[13]. The racial identity of Egyptian pharaohs was used especially by 19th century scientists such as Samuel George Morton and his contemporaries to confirm the contemporary American racial hierarchy. This hierarchy served proponents of slavery to justify the inhuman treatment of slaves and the denial of civil rights for any but white Americans^[14]. Types of Mankind (1854), the culmination of American School racial thinking, contains a major chapter on the racial characteristics of the ancient Egyptians, starting a controversy that still rages today^[15]. Historians have put forward three main hypotheses which clearly contradict each other ^[16]. Scientists, historians and anatomists argue whether the Egyptians were white, black or hybrid (mixture of both). The argument draws on aspects such as wall paintings or the physique of mummies. Image File history File links Four-'species'-of--Egypt. ... Image File history File links Four-'species'-of--Egypt. ... In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biodiversity. ... Polygenism is a biblical theory of human origins positing that the human races are of different lineages. ... Richard White (born 1947) is an American historian, currently the President-elect of the Organization of American Historians, and the author of influential books on the American West, Native American history, and environmental history. ... Paschal Beverly Randolph (October 8, 1825 - July 29, 1875) was born according to conflicting sources in New York or Virginia, a free man of mixed-race ancestry. ... ... Samuel George Morton (1799-1851) An American physician and natural scientist. ... The controversy over racial characteristics of ancient Egyptians refers to the differing scholarly opinions on the racial identity of ancient Egyptians. ...

Title Page of David Walker's Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World

Going back to ancient Greek and Roman descriptions of Egyptians, African American thinkers in the nineteenth century insisted that the Egyptians were black Africans, making it possible to provide an ancient and noble lineage that countered the degrading images proliferated by racist science and pro-slavery polemic. Prominent contributors to this debate include David Walker, James McCune Smith, Frederick Douglass and W.E.B. DuBois. Identifying with the enslaved Hebrews, African Americans had long used the biblical Exodus narrative to encode their right and desire for freedom, as the well-known spiritual "Go down, Moses" still testifies. David Walker's Appeal (1829) places this biblical story of liberation in tension with the assertion that the Pharaos were black as well. The prominent black abolitionists James McCune Smith and Frederick Douglass countered white ethnography directly, as for example in Douglass' "Claims of the Negro Ethnologically Considered" (1854), drawing from findings of earlier European ethnologists such as James Prichard. At the turn of the 20th century, W.E.B. DuBois shaped the concept of race and identity in yet another way by writing about the "double consciousness" of Africans in the "Diaspora", meaning the descendants of the slaves in the U.S. This concept led to the twentieth century Black nationalist movements. David Walkers Appeal File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Cover of David Walkers Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World David Walker (September 28, 1785 - June 28, 1830) was a black abolitionist. ... James McCune Smith (1813 - November 17, 1865), born to an enslaved mother in New York, was the first professionally trained African-American doctor. ... Frederick Douglass, ca. ... W. E. B. Du Bois William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (pronounced ) (February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was a civil rights activist, sociologist, educator, historian, writer, editor, poet, and scholar, and socialist. ... Exodus is the second book of the Torah, the Tanakh, and the Old Testament. ... Go Down Moses is an African-American spiritual, that is a retelling of events in the Old Testament of the Bible (Exodus, chapters 3-12), in which God commands Moses to demand the release of the Israelites from bondage in Egypt. ... Cover of David Walkers Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World David Walker (September 28, 1785 - June 28, 1830) was a black abolitionist. ... This article refers to the historical Pharaoh. ... James McCune Smith (1813 - November 17, 1865), born to an enslaved mother in New York, was the first professionally trained African-American doctor. ... Frederick Douglass, ca. ... James Cowles Prichard (February 11, 1786 - December 23, 1848), English physician and ethnologist, was born at Ross in Herefordshire. ... W. E. B. Du Bois William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (pronounced ) (February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was a civil rights activist, sociologist, educator, historian, writer, editor, poet, and scholar, and socialist. ... Double-Consciousness, in its contemporary sense, was a term coined by W.E.B. Du Bois. ... Look up Diaspora in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Black nationalism is a political and social movement arising in the 1960s and early 70s mostly among African Americans in the United States. ...

See also

• Afrocentrism
• Egypt in the Western imagination
• Egyptian Revival architecture
• Orientalism

Afrocentrism holds that Eurocentrism has led to the neglect or denial of the contributions of Africas original peoples and focused instead on a generally European-centered model of world civilization and history. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Egyptian Revial mausoleum of Maj. ... Orientalism is the study of Near and Far Eastern societies and cultures, languages and peoples by Western scholars. ...

Notes

1. ^ cf. Trafton 2004, 2.
2. ^ cf. esp. Trafton 2004.
3. ^ For a chronological overview of the impact of Egypt on the Western imagination since ancient Greece see Egypt in the Western imagination.
4. ^ cf. Whitehouse
5. ^ cf. Whitehouse
6. ^ A prominent example, which also reflected upon the cultural meaning of this fascination, is the exhibition "Egyptomania: Egypt in Western Art, 1730-1930" (Paris, Musée Du Louvre, 20 January-18 April 1994; Ottawa, National Gallery of Canada, 17 June-18 September 1994; Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, 16 October 1994-29 January 1995). The exhibition catalog was published by The National Gallery of Canada in 1994 (Humbert et al.).
7. ^ Trafton 2004:121-164
8. ^ cf. Trafton 2004:124-126
9. ^ cf. Trafton 2004:132-140
10. ^ cf. Trafton 2004:126-129
11. ^ cf. Nelson 1998
12. ^ Ater, 2003.
13. ^ cf. Nelson 1998.
14. ^ cf. Nelson 1998
15. ^ E.g. Vincent Sarich and Frank Miele's Race: The Reality of Human Differences (2004), a recent attempt to add academic credibility to the popular — but scientifically discredited — notion that "race" constitutes an essential rather than a culturally constructed human difference, uses Egypt in a similar way.
16. ^ Ater, 2003.

This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

References and Further Reading

• Ater, Renee. "Making History: Meta Warrick Fuller's 'Ethiopia'". American Art 17.3 (2003): 12-31.
• Brier, Bob. Egyptomania. Brookville, NY: Hillwood Art Museum, 1992. ISBN 0-933699-26-3 (exhibition catalog)
• Curl, James Stevens. Egyptomania: The Egyptian Revival, A Recurring Theme in the History of Taste. Manchester University Press, 1994. Manchester, UK; New York: Manchester University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-7190-4126-0
• Draper, Theodore. The Rediscovery of Black Nationalism. New York: Viking Press, 1970. ISBN 0-670-59114-9
• Gillman, Susan. Pauline Hopkins and the Occult: African-American Revisions of Nineteenth-Century Sciences In: American Literary History, Vol 8, No.1, spring 1996, pp. 57-82
• Glaude, Eddie S. Exodus! Religion, Race, and Nation in Early Nineteenth-Century Black America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000. ISBN 0-226-29819-1
• Gruesser, John Cullen. Black on Black: Twentieth-Century African American Writing About Africa. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 2000. ISBN 0-8131-2163-9
• Humbert, Jean-Marcel, et al. Egyptomania: Egypt in Western Art, 1730-1930. Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada, 1994. ISBN 0-88884-636-3 (Exhibition catalog: Paris, Musée Du Louvre, 20 January-18 April 1994; Ottawa, National Gallery of Canada, 17 June-18 September 1994; Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, 16 October 1994-29 January 1995)
• Howe, Stephen. Afrocentrism: Mythical Pasts and Imagined Homes. London ; New York: Verso, 1998. ISBN 1-85984-873-7
• Nelson, Dana D. National Manhood: Capitalist Citizenship and the Imagined Fraternity of White Men. Duke University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-8223-2149-1
• Schueller, Malini Johar. U.S. Orientalisms: Race, Nation, and Gender in Literature, 1790-1890. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1998. ISBN 0-472-10885-9
• Trafton, Scott Driskell. Egypt Land: Race and Nineteenth-Century American Egyptomania. New Americanists. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8223-3362-7
• Wallace, Maurice O. Constructing the Black Masculine: Identity and Ideality in African American Men's Literature and Culture, 1775-1995. Durham: Duke University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8223-2854-2
• Whitehouse, Helen. Review Article: "Egyptomanias" In: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol 101, No.1, Jan 1997, pp. 158-161.

External links

• egyptomania.org, a website devoted to covering all aspects of "Egyptomania" from both a scholarly and a popular perspective. Includes Bibliographies.
• American Egyptomania, a scholarly website maintained at George Mason University, under the guidance of Scott Trafton, the author of Egypt Land (2004). Focuses on expressions of Egyptomania in the United States starting in the early nineteenth century and includes excerpts from original documents.