The ancient Elamite Empire lay to the east of Sumer and Akkad, in what is now southwestern Iran. The Elamites called their country haltamtu or hallatamti, which was translated as Elam by the neighboring Akkadians. The high country of Elam was later more and more identified by its low-lying later capital, Susa and called Susiana by geographers after Ptolemy. The Elamite language is unrelated to the neighboring Semitic languages, Sumerian language, and Iranian (Indo-European) languages, and the Elamites themselves were an Alpine people who had migrated to the Iranian plateau in prehistoric times. Some scholars believe it is related to the living Dravidian languages of India (see Elamo-Dravidian languages).

History

Elamite history is conventionally divided into three periods.

The Old Elamite period begins with the oldest attested Elamite kings, approximately 2700 BC. Elam, designated NIM by Sumerian scribes, with the meaning simply of "highlands," had not previously been unified in any way, neither ethnically nor culturally. Elam fell under the political control of Akkad in the 22nd century BCE. The Avan dynasty reasserted Elam's independence. Shulgi of Ur (c. 2094-c. 2047 BC) conquered Elam for a time. About the middle of the 19th century BC, power in Elam passed to the Eparti dynasty. Hammurabi of Babylon attacked Elam in 18th century BC. King Kutir-Nahhunte I of Elam counter-attacked, and dealt a serious defeat to Hammurabi's son Samsu-Iluna.

It must be noted however, that Elamite artifacts and remains from earlier times, continue to be discovered in central and southeastern Iran (example) (http://www.payvand.com/news/05/feb/1024.html). Some experts refer to this period as Proto-Elamite.

Artist rendition of what the Sialk ziggurat in central Iran might have looked like 7000 years ago. The ziggurat is located in Kashan, and was (re)built by proto-Elamites.

The Middle Elamite Period begins about 1350s BC, after a 200 year hiatus about which little is known. Around 1160, under King Shutruk-Nahhunte, Elam defeats the Kassites to establish the first Elamite empire, which proved to be short lived; King Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon conquered Elam around 1120, bringing the empire to an end.

Around 750s BC, Elam reasserts its independence, bringing about the neo-Elamite cultural revival of the Late Elamite Period. Elam was conquered by the Assyrians in 645 BC, which marks the end of Elam as an independent state. The Medes conquered Elam from the Assyrians, and the Achaemenid dynasty, an Iranian dynasty who ruled the former Elamite land of Anshan, took Susa and conquered the Median Empire, to establish the first Persian Empire.

Traditional histories have ended Elamite history with its submergence in the Achaemenids, but Greek and Latin references to "Elymeans" attest to cultural survival, according to Daniel Potts (see Refs.).

Elamite served as one of the official languages of the Persian Empire in ancient times, and Susa served as one of the four capitals of the empire. Susa also served as a capital of the Sassanid dynasty from 224 to 651 AD. The last use of Elamite script is the fourth century AD, and Elam is today known as the modern province of Khuzestan, where Iran's immense oil industry is based.

The Elamites are also mentioned by biblical historian Josephus. "For Elam left behind him the Elamites, the ancestors of the Persians" (Antiquites of the Jews 1:6). According to Jewish legend, Elam is the son of Shem and the grandson of Noah.

Chronology of rulers

Avan Dynasty (precise dates unknown)

• Peli (fl. c. 2500 BC)
• Tata (precise dates unknown)
• Ukku-Takhesh (precise dates unknown)
• Khishur (precise dates unknown)
• Shushun-Tarana (precise dates unknown)
• Napil-Khush (precise dates unknown)
• Kikku-Sive-Temti (precise dates unknown)
• Lukh-Ishshan (fl. c. 24th century BC)
• Khelu (fl. c. 2300 BC)
• Khita (fl. c. 2275 BC)
• Kutik-Inshushinnak (fl. c. 2240 BC)

Simash Dynasty (precise dates unknown)

• Gir-Namme (fl. c. 2030 BC)
• Enpi-Luhhan (fl. c. 2010 BC)
• Khutran-Temtt (precise dates unknown)
• Kindattu (precise dates unknown)
• Indattu-Inshushinnak I (precise dates unknown)
• Tan-Rukhurater (precise dates unknown)
• Indattu-Inshushinnak II (precise dates unknown)
• Indattu-Napir (precise dates unknown)
• Indattu-Tempt (precise dates unknown)

Eparti Dynasty (precise dates unknown)

• Eparti I (precise dates unknown)
• Eparti II (precise dates unknown)
• Eparti III (fl. c. 1850 BC)
• Shilkhakha (precise dates unknown)
• Attakhushu (fl. c. 1830 BC)
• Sirukdukh (fl. c. 1792 BC)
• Shimut-Wartash (c. 1772 - c. 1770 BC)

Babylonian Dynasty (c. 1770 - c. 1500 BC)

• Siwe-Palar-Khuppak (c. 1770 - c. 1745 BC)
• Kuduzulush I (c. 1745 - c. 1730 BC)
• Kutir-Nahhunte I (c. 1730 - c. 1700 BC)
• Lila-Ir-Tash (c. 1700 - c. 1698 BC)
• Temti-Agun I (c. 1698 - c. 1690 BC)
• Tan-Uli (c. 1690 - c. 1655 BCE)
• Temti-Khalki (c. 1655 - c. 1650 BC)
• Kuk-Nashur II (c. 1650 - c. 1635 BC)
• Kutir-Shilkhakha I (c. 1635 - c. 1625 BC)
• Temti-Raptash (c. 1625 - c. 1605 BC)
• Kuduzulush II (c. 1605 - c. 1600 BC)
• Tata (c. 1600 - c. 1580 BC)
• Atta-Merra-Khalki (c. 1580 - c. 1570 BC)
• Pala-Ishshan (c. 1570 - c. 1545 BC)
• Kuk-Kirwash (c. 1545 - c. 1520 BC)
• Kuk-Nahhunte (c. 1520 - c. 1505 BC)
• Kutir-Nahhunte II (c. 1505 - ???? BC)

Igehalkid Dynasty (c. 1350 - c. 1200 BC)

• Ige-Halki (c. 1350 - c. 1330 BC)
• Pakhir-Ishshan (c. 1330 - c. 1310 BC)
• Attar-Kittakh (c. 1310 - c. 1300 BC)
• Khuman-Numena (c. 1300 - c. 1275 BC)
• Untash-Naprisha (c. 1275 - c. 1240 BC)
• Unpatar-Naprisha (c. 1240 - c. 1235 BC)
• Kiddin-Khutran (c. 1235 - c. 1210 BC)

Shutrukid Dynasty (c. 1205 - c. 1100 BC)

• Khallutush-In-Shushinak (c. 1205 - c. 1185 BC)
• Shutruk-Nahhunte (c. 1185 - c. 1155 BC)
• Kutir-Nahhunte III (c. 1155 - c. 1150 BC)
• Shilkhak-In-Shushinak (c. 1150 - c. 1120 BC)
• Khutelutush-In-Shushinak (c. 1120 - c. 1110 BC)
• Shilhana-Hamru-Lagamar (c. 1110 - ???? BC)

Late Elam Dynasty (743 - 644 BCE)

• Khumbanigash I (743 - 717 BC)
• Shuttir-Nakhkhunte (717 - 699 BC)
• Khallushu (699 - 693 BC)
• Kutir-Nakhkhunte (693 - 692 BC)
• Khumma-Menanu (692 - 689 BC)
• Khumma-Khaldash I (689 - 681 BC)
• Khumma-Khaldash II (681 - 680 BC)
• Khumma-Khaldash II & Shilhak-In-Shushinak (680 - 676 BC)
• Shilhak-In-Shushinak & Urtaku (676 - 664 BC)
• Shilhak-In-Shushinak & Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak (664 - 653 BC)
• Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Khumbanigash II (653 - 651 BC)
• Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Tammaritu (651 - 649 BC)
• Atta-Khumma-In-Shushinak & Indabigash (649 - 648 BC)
• Indabigash (648 - 647 BC)
• Khumma-Khaldash III (647 - 644 BC)

External links

• Elam in Ancient Southwest Iran (http://ancientneareast.tripod.com/Elam_Susiana.html)
• All Empires - The Elamite Empire (http://www.allempires.com/empires/elamite/elamite1.htm)

Reference

Daniel T. Potts, The archaeology of Elam: formation and transformation of an ancient Iranian state, Cambridge U., 1999 ISBN 0521564964 and ISBN 0521563585