An electrostatic generator, or electrostatic machine, is a mechanical device that produces static electricity, or electricity at high voltage and low continuous current. The knowledge of static electricity dates back to the earliest civilizations, but for millennia it remained merely an interesting and mystifying phenomenon. By the end of the 17th Century, researchers had developed practical means of generating electricity by friction, but the development of electrostatic machines did not begin in earnest until the 18th Century, when they become fundamental instruments in the studies about the new science of electricity. Electrostatic generators operate by using manual (or other) power to transform mechanical work into electric energy. They develop electrostatic charges of opposite sign rendered to two conductors, using only electric forces. Static electricity is a class of phenomena involving the net charge present on an object; typically referring to charged object with voltages of sufficient magnitude to produce visible attraction, repulsion, and sparks. ... In electrical engineering High voltage refers to a voltage which is high. ... Direct current (DC or continuous current) is the continuous flow of electric charge through a conductor such as a wire from high to low potential. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ... Mechanical work is a force applied through a distance, defined mathematically as the line integral of a scalar product of force and displacement vectors. ... Electrical energy or Electromagnetic energy is a form of energy present in any electric field or magnetic field, or in any volume containing electromagnetic radiation. ... Electrostatics is the branch of physics that deals with the force exerted by a static (i. ... Electric charge is a fundamental property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interactions. ...

Description

Electrostatic machines are used for generating high voltages, using either friction or electrostatic induction to accumulate electrical charges. Electrostatic generators are typically used in science classrooms to safely demonstrate electrical forces and high voltage phenomena. The potential differences achieved have been also used for a variety of practical applications (such as operating X-ray tubes, sterilization of food, and nuclear physics experiments). Electrostatic generators such as the Van de Graaff generator, and variations as the Pelletron and the tandem generator, also find use in physics research. Van de Graaff generator. ... Pelletron is an electrostatic particle accelerator similar to a Van de Graaff generator, which is able to reach several million electron-volts (MeV) of kinetic energy. ...

Electrostatic generators are of two kinds: friction machines, and influence machines.

Friction machines

History

Typical friction machine using a glass globe, common in the 18th century

Martinus van Marum's Electrostatic generator at Teylers Museum

Some electrostatic generators are called friction machines because of the friction in the generation process. A primitive form of frictional electrical machine was constructed around 1663 by Otto von Guericke, using a rotating sulphur globe rubbed by hand. Isaac Newton suggested the use of a glass globe instead of a sulphur one (Optics, 8th Query). F. Hawksbee improved the basic design. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (931x1586, 378 KB)Hubert-François Gravelot: Die Elektrisierte, um 1750. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (931x1586, 378 KB)Hubert-François Gravelot: Die Elektrisierte, um 1750. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 784 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (2078 × 1590 pixel, file size: 612 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Electrostatic generator Metadata... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 784 × 600 pixel Image in higher resolution (2078 × 1590 pixel, file size: 612 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File links The following pages on the English Wikipedia link to this file (pages on other projects are not listed): Electrostatic generator Metadata... Categories: Stub | Haarlem | Museums in the Netherlands | Natural history museums ... Friction is the force that opposes the relative motion or tendency toward such motion of two surfaces in contact. ... // Events Prix de Rome scholarship established for students of the arts. ... Otto von Guericke Otto von Guericke (originally spelled Gericke) [] (November 20, 1602 – May 11, 1686 (Julian calendar); November 30, 1602 – May 21, 1686 (Gregorian calendar)) was a German scientist, inventor, and politician. ... Sir Isaac Newton, (4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727) [ OS: 25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727][1] was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science. ... Opticks or a treatise of the reflections, refractions, inflections and colours of light Opticks is a book written by English physicist Isaac Newton that was released to the public in 1704. ...

Generators were further advanced when G. M. Bose of Wittenberg added a collecting conductor (an insulated tube or cylinder supported on silk strings). In 1746, Watson's machine had a large wheel turning several glass globes with a sword and a gun barrel suspended from silk cords for its prime conductors. J. H. Winkler, the professor of physics at Leipzig, substituted a leather cushion for the hand. Andreas Gordon of Erfurt, a Scotch Benedictine monk, used a glass cylinder in place of a sphere. Jesse Ramsden, in 1768, constructed a widely used version of a plate electrical generator. By 1784, the van Marum machine could produce voltage with any polarity. Also in 1784, Van Marum constructed a rather large electrostatic machine of high quality (currently on display at the Teylers Museum in the Netherlands). // Events Catharine de Ricci (born 1522) canonized. ...   [] (Sorbian/Lusatian: Lipsk) is the largest city in the federal state of Saxony in Germany with a population of over 504,000. ... Jesse Ramsden (October 6, 1735 - November 5, 1800) was an English astronomical instrument maker. ... 1768 was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar). ... 1784 was a leap year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... Categories: Stub | Haarlem | Museums in the Netherlands | Natural history museums ...

In 1785, N. Rouland constructed a silk belted machine which rubbed two grounded hare fur covered tubes. Edward Nairne developed an electrostatic generator in 1787 which introduced the ability to generate either positive or negative electricity, the first named being collected from the prime conductor carrying the collecting points and the second from the prime conductor carrying the cushion. The Winter machine possessed higher efficiency than earlier friction machines. In the 1830s, Georg Ohm possessed a machine similar to the van Marum machine for his research (which is now at the Deutches Museum, Munich, Germany). In 1840, the Woodward machine was developed from improving the Ramsden machine (placing the prime conductor above the disk(s)). Also in 1840, the Armstrong hydroelectric machine was developed and used steam as a charge carrier. 1785 was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... Edward Nairne b. ... Year 1787 was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... Events and Trends Electromagnetic induction discovered by Michael Faraday Dutch-speaking farmers known as Voortrekkers emigrate northwards from the Cape Colony Croquet invented in Ireland Railroad construction begins in earnest in the United States Egba refugees fleeing the Yoruba civil wars found the city of Abeokuta in south-west Nigeria... Georg Simon Ohm, (March 16, 1789 Erlangen, Germany - July 6, 1854, Munich) a German physicist, was born in Erlangen and educated at the university there. ... 1840 is a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will take you to calendar). ...

Friction operation

The presence of surface charge imbalance means that the objects will exhibit attractive or repulsive forces. This surface charge imbalance, which leads to static electricity, can be generated by touching two differing surfaces together and then separating them due to the phenomena of contact electrification and the triboelectric effect. Rubbing two non-conductive objects generates a great amount of static electricity. This is not just the result of friction; two non-conductive surfaces can become charged by just being placed one on top of the other. Since most surfaces have a rough texture, it takes longer to achieve charging through contact than through rubbing. Rubbing objects together increases amount of adhesive contact between the two surfaces. Usually insulators, e.g., substances that do not conduct electricity, are good at both generating, and holding, a surface charge. Some examples of these substances are rubber, plastic, glass, and pith. Conductive objects in contact generate charge imbalance too, but retain the charges only if insulated. The charge that is transferred during contact electrification is stored on the surface of each object. Note that the presence of electric current does not detract from the electrostatic forces nor from the sparking, from the corona discharge, or other phenomena. Both phenomena can exist simultaneously in the same system. Surface charge is the electric charge present on an interface, for instance on the surface of a semiconductor material. ... In the late-18th century, scientists developed sensitive instruments for detecting electrification, otherwise known as electrostatic charge imbalance. ... The triboelectric effect is a type of contact electrification in which certain materials become electrically charged after coming into contact with another different material, and are then separated. ... Insulators are materials which prevent the flow of heat (thermal insulators) or electric charge (electrical insulators). ... Latex being collected from a tapped rubber tree Rubber is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer which occurs as a milky colloidal suspension (known as latex) in the sap of several varieties of plants. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... Glass can be made transparent and flat, or into other shapes and colors as shown in this sphere from the Verrerie of Brehat in Brittany. ... The centre dark spot (about 1 mm diameter) in this yew wood is the pith Pith is a light substance that is found in vascular plants. ... In science and engineering, conductors are materials that contain movable charges of electricity. ... Electric current is by definition the flow of electric charge. ... In electricity, a corona discharge is an electrical discharge brought on by the ionization of a fluid surrounding a conductor, which occurs when the potential gradient exceeds a certain value, in situations where sparking (also known as arcing) is not favoured. ...

Influence machines

History

Frictional machines were, in time, gradually superseded by the second class of instrument mentioned above, namely, influence machines. These operate by electrostatic induction and convert mechanical work into electrostatic energy by the aid of a small initial charge which is continually being replenished or reinforced. The first suggestion of an influence machine appears to have grown out of the invention of Volta's electrophorus. The electrophorus is a single-plate capacitor used to produce imbalances of electric charge via the process of electrostatic induction. Abraham Bennet, the inventor of the gold leaf electroscope, described a "doubler of electricity" (Phil. Trans., 1787), as a device similar to the electrophorus, but that could amplify a small charge by means of manual operations with three insulated plates, in order to make it observable in an electroscope. Erasmus Darwin, B. Wilson, G. C. Bohnenberger, and (later, 1841) J. C. E. Péclet developed various modifications of Bennet's device. In 1788, William Nicholson proposed his rotating doubler, that can be considered as the first rotating influence machine. His instrument was described as "an instrument which by turning a winch produces the two states of electricity without friction or communication with the earth". (Phil. Trans., 1788, p. 403) Nicholson later described a "spinning condenser" apparatus. Electrostatic induction is a method by which an electrically charged object can be used to create an electrical charge in a second object, without contact between the two objects. ... This article is about the physicist Alessandro Volta. ... For the genus of fish family Electrophoridae, see electric eel An electrophorus is a single-plate capacitor used to produce imbalances of electric charge via the proces of electrostatic induction. ... Capacitors: SMD ceramic at top left; SMD tantalum at bottom left; through-hole tantalum at top right; through-hole electrolytic at bottom right. ... Electric charge is a fundamental conserved property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interaction. ... Electrostatic induction is a method by which an electrically charged object can be used to create an electrical charge in a second object, without contact between the two objects. ... An electrometer measures electric charge. ... Portrait of Erasmus Darwin by Joseph Wright of Derby (1792) Stone-cast bust of Erasmus Darwin, by William John Coffee, c 1795, (Crown Derby Modeller and world renown artist) Erasmus Darwin (December 12, 1731 – April 18, 1802) trained as a physician and wrote extensively on medicine and botany, as well... There have been several well-known people named William Nicholson, including: William Nicholson (artist) William Nicholson (chemist) William Nicholson (dramatist) William Nicholson (Mayor of Melbourne) Sir William Nicholson (soldier), British General, and Chief of the Imperial General Staff William Nicholson (naval officer) served in the United States Navy. ...

Others, including T. Cavallo (who developed the "Cavallo multiplier", a charge multiplier using simple addition, in 1795), John Read, Charles Bernard Desormes, and Jean Nicolas Pierre Hachette, developed further various forms of rotating doublers. In 1798, The German scientist and preacher Gottlieb Christoph Bohnenberger, described the Bohnenberger machine, along with several other doublers of Bennet and Nicholson types in a book. The most interesting of these were described in the "Annalen der Physik" (1801). Giuseppe Belli, in 1831, developed a simple symmetrical doubler which consisted of two curved metal plates between which revolved a pair of plates carried on an insulating stem. It was the first symmetrical influence machine, with identical structures for both terminals. This apparatus was similar to Lord Kelvin's "replenisher" (1867). Lord Kelvin also devised a combined influence machine and electromagnetic machine, commonly called a mouse mill, for electrifying the ink in connection with his siphon recorder. Lord Kelvin also developed, between 1858 and 1867, a water-drop electrostatic generator, which he called the "water-dropping condenser". Tiberius Cavallo (1749–1809), Anglo-Italian electrician and natural philosopher, was born on the 30th of March 1749 at Naples, where his father was a physician. ... 1795 was a common year starting on Thursday (see link for calendar). ... John Meredith Read (July 21, 1797–November 29, 1874) was an American lawyer, jurist, and politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ... Jean Nicolas Pierre Hachette (May 6, 1769 - January 16, 1834), French mathematician, was born at Mezières, where his father was a bookseller. ... Leopold I 1831 (MDCCCXXXI) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar). ... William Thomson, Archbishop of York, has the same name as this man. ... The siphon recorder is an item of telecommunications equipment invented by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin. ... 1858 (MDCCCLVIII) is a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... Cunt BAg Twat Fuk suck my penis ring 0778851865!!!!!!Year 1867 (MDCCCLXVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Thursday of the of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... The Kelvin water dropper is a type of electrostatic generator, which uses falling water drops to generate voltage differences by utilizing the electrostatic induction occurring between interconnected, oppositely charged systems. ...

In 1860, C. F. Varley patented a more modern type of influence machine. Between 1864 and 1880, W. T. B. Holtz constructed and described a large number of influence machines which were considered the most advanced developments of the time. In one form, the Holtz machine consisted of a glass disk mounted on a horizontal axis which could be made to rotate at a considerable speed by a multiplying gear, interacting with induction plates mounted in a fixed disk close to it. In 1865, August J. I. Toepler developed an influence machine that consisted of two disks fixed on the same shaft and rotating in the same direction. In 1868, the Schwedoff machine had a curious structure to increase the output current. Also in 1868, several mixed friction-influence machine were developed, including the Kundt machine and the Carré machine. In 1866, the Piche machine (or Bertsch machine) was developed. In 1869, H. Julius Smith received the American patent for a portable and airtight device that was designed to ignite powder. Also in 1869, sectorless machines in Germany were investigated by Poggendorff. 1860 is the leap year starting on Sunday. ... Cromwell Fleetwood Varley (April 6, 1828 - September 2, 1883) was an English engineer, particularly associated with the development of the electric telegraph and the transatlantic telegraph cable. ... 1864 (MDCCCLXIV) was a leap year starting on Friday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a leap year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Year 1880 (MDCCCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar). ... 1865 (MDCCCLXV) is a common year starting on Sunday. ... August Toepler (1836 - 1912) was a German physicist known for his experiments in electrostatics. ... 1868 (MDCCCLXVIII) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a leap year starting on Friday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... 1866 (MDCCCLXVI) is a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... 1869 (MDCCCLXIX) is a common year starting on Friday (link will take you to calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Sunday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar. ... Johann Christian Poggendorff. ...

The action and efficiency of influence machines were further investigated by F. Rossetti, A. Righi, and F. W. G. Kohlrausch. E. E. N. Mascart, A. Roiti, and E. Bouchotte also examined the efficiency and current producing power of influence machines. In 1871, sectorless machines were investigated by Musaeus. In 1872, Righi's electromer was developed and was one of the first antecedents of the Van de Graaff generator. In 1873, Leyser developed the Leyser machine, a variation of the Holtz machine. In 1880, Robert Voss (a Berlin instrument maker) devised a form of machine in which he claimed that the principles of Toepler and Holtz were combined. The same structure become also known as the Toepler-Holtz machine. In 1878, the British inventor James Wimshurst started his studies about electrostatic generators, improving the Holtz machine, in a powerful version with multiple disks. The classical Wimshurst machine, that become the most popular form of influence machine, was reported to the scientific community by 1883, although revious machines with very similar structures were previously described by Holtz and Musaeus. In 1885, one of the largest Wimshurst machine was built in England (and is now at the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry). In 1887, Weinhold modified the Leyser machine with a system of vertical metal bar inductors with wooden cylinders close to the disk for avoiding polarity reversals. M. L. Lebiez described the Lebiez machine, that was essentially a simplified Voss machine (L'Électricien, April 1895, pp. 225-227). In 1894, Bonetti designed a machine with the structure of the Wimshurst machine, but without metal sectors in the disks, that was significantly more powerful than the sectored version. 1871 (MDCCCLXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (see link for calendar). ... Year 1872 (MDCCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian Calendar (or a leap year starting on Wednesday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... 1873 (MDCCCLXXIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday (see link for calendar). ... Year 1880 (MDCCCLXXX) was a leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar). ... 1878 (MDCCCLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). ... James Wimshurst (April 13, 1832 – January 3, 1903) was a British inventor, engineer, and shipwright. ... Wimshurst machine with two Leyden jars. ... 1883 (MDCCCLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1885 (MDCCCLXXXV) is a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Saturday of the 12-day slower Julian calendar). ... The Museum of Science and Industry is housed in the only surviving building from the 1893 World Columbian Exposition and is a National Historic Landmark. ...

In 1898, the Pidgeon machine was developed with a unique setup by W. R. Pidgeon. In October 28 of that year, Pidgeon presented this machine to the Physical Society after several years of investigation into influence machines (beginning at the start of the decade). The device was later reported in the Philosophical Magazine (Dec. 1898, pg. 564) and the Electrical Review (Vol. XLV, pg. 748). Pidgeon machines possess fixed inductors arranged in a manner that increases the electrical induction effect (and it electrical output is at least double that of typical machines of this type [except when it is overtaxed]). The essential features of the Pidgeon machine are, one, the combination of the rotating support and the fixed support for inducing charge, and, two, the improved insulation of all parts of the machine (but more especially of the generator's carriers). Pidgeon machines are a combination of a Wimshurst Machine and Voss Machine, with special features adapted to reduce the amount of charge leakage. Pidgeon machines excite themselves more readily than the best of these types of machines. In addition, Pidgeon investigated higher current "triplex" section machines (or "double machines with a single central disk") with enclosed sectors (and would receive British Patent 22517 (1899) for this type of machine). 1898 (MDCCCXCVIII) was a common year starting on Saturday (see link for calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Monday of the 12-day-slower Julian calendar). ... An inductor is a passive electrical device employed in electrical circuits for its property of inductance. ...

Multiple disk machines and "triplex" electrostatic machines (Wimshurst machines with three disks) were also developed extensively around the turn of the century. In 1900, F. Tudsbury discovered that enclosing a generator in a metallic chamber containing compressed air, or better, carbon dioxide, the insulating properties of compressed gases enabled a greatly improved effect to be obtained owing to the increase in the breakdown voltage of the compressed gas, and reduction of the leakage across the plates and insulating supports. In 1903, Alfred Wehrsen patented an ebonite rotating disk possessing embedded sectors with button contacts at the disk surface. In 1907, Heinrich Wommelsdorf reported a variation of the Holtz machine using this disk and inductors embedded in celluloid plates (DE154175; "Wehrsen machine"). Wommelsdorf also developed several studies about high-performance electrostatic generators, of which the best known were his "Condenser machines" (1920), that were multiple machines with disks with embedded sectors accessed trough the edges. Fin de siècle is French for End of the Century. The term turn-of-the-century is sometimes used as a synonym, but is more neutral (lacking some or most of the connotations described below), and can include the first years of a new century. ... Year 1900 (MCM) was an exceptional common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar, but a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. ... Compressed air is used to refer to: Pneumatics, the use of pressurized gases to do work, as used in the Air car Breathing gas, often used in scuba diving, also to inflate buoyancy devices Compressed air can also be used for cooling using a vortex tube. ... Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... 1900 (MCMIII) was a common year starting on Thursday (link will display calendar) of the Gregorian calendar or a common year starting on Friday of the 13-day slower Julian calendar. ... 1907 (MCMVII) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Gregorian calendar (or a common year starting on Wednesday of the 13-day-slower Julian calendar). ...

Modern electrostatic generators

Electrostatic generators had a fundamental role in the investigations about the structure of matter, starting at the end of the 19th century. By the 1920's, it was evident that machines capable of generating greater voltage were needed. The Van de Graaff generator was developed, starting in 1929, at MIT. The first model was demonstrated in October 1929. The basic idea was to use an insulating belt to transport electric charge to the interior of an insulated hollow terminal, where it could be discharged regardless of the potential already present on the terminal,that does not produce any electric field in its interior. The idea was not new, but the implementation using an electronic power supply to charge the belt was a fundamental innovation that turned the old machines obsolete. The first machine used a silk ribbon bought at a five and dime store as the charge transport belt. In 1931 a version capable of producing 1,000,000 volts was described in a patent disclosure. Nikola Tesla wrote a Scientific American article, "Possibilities of Electro-Static Generators" in 1934 concerning the Van de Graaff generator (pp. 132-134 and 163-165). Tesla stated, "I believe that when new types [of Van de Graaff generators] are developed and sufficiently improved a great future will be assured to them". High-power machines were soon developed, working on pressurized containers to allow greater charge concentration on the surfaces without ionization. Variations of the Van de Graaff generator were also developed for Physics research, as the Pelletron, that uses a chain with alternating insulating and conducting links for charge transport. Simplified Van de Graaff generators are commonly seen in demonstrations about static electricity, due to its high-voltage capability, producing the curious effect of making the hair of people touching the terminal, standing over an insulating support, stand up. Van de Graaff generator. ... 1929 (MCMXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ... Mapúa Institute of Technology (MIT, MapúaTech or simply Mapúa) is a private, non-sectarian, Filipino tertiary institute located in Intramuros, Manila. ... 1929 (MCMXXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar). ... 1931 (MCMXXXI) was a common year starting on Thursday (link is to a full 1931 calendar). ... Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)[1] was a world-renowned Serbian inventor, physicist, mechanical engineer and electrical engineer. ... Pelletron is an electrostatic particle accelerator similar to a Van de Graaff generator, which is able to reach several million electron-volts (MeV) of kinetic energy. ...

Between 1945 and 1960, the French researcher Noël Felici developed a series of high-power electrostatic generators, based on electronic excitation and using cylinders rotating at high speed in pressurized containers.

Related recent machines

In 1991, G. L. Paramo developed the Lorente generator. It is a triboelectric machine operating with rolling friction, consisting of four cylinders with the two central ones made of different insulating materials and the two outer ones metallic. The cylinders rotate under some pressure, and the charges separated between the two central cylinders are collected by the outer cylinders. 1991 (MCMXCI) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The triboelectric effect is an electrical phenomenon where certain materials become electrically charged after coming into contact with another, different, material. ...

Fringe science and devices

These generators have been used, sometimes inappropriately and with some controversy, to support various fringe science investigations. In 1911, George Samuel Piggott received a patent for a compact double machine enclosed within a pressurized box for his experiments concerning radiotelegraphy and "antigravity". Much later (in the 1960s), the Testatika was built by German engineer, Paul Suisse Bauman, and promoted by a Swiss community, the Methernithans. Testatika is an electromagnetic generator based on the 1889 Pidgeon electrostatic machine, said to produce "free energy" available directly from the environment. Fringe science is a phrase used to describe scientific inquiry in an established field that departs significantly from mainstream or orthodox theories. ... 1911 (MCMXI) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar). ... Telegraphy (from the Greek words tele = far away and grapho = write) is the long distance transmission of written messages without physical transport of letters, originally over wire. ... AntiGravity is a group of New York gymnasts/performance artists. ... The factual accuracy of this article is disputed. ... For the Technical Symposium of NITK Surathkal Engineer , see Engineer (Technical Fest). ... Methernitha refers to two related entities, both founded by Paul Baumann. ...

See also

• List of electrostatic generator patents
• Electrostatic motor
• Electrometer (also known as the "electroscope")
• Electret

An electrostatic generator is a mechanical device can produce continous current. ... An electrostatic motor or capacitor motor is a type of electric motor based on the attraction and repulsion of electric charge. ... An electrometer is an electrical instrument for measuring electric charge or electrical potential difference. ... Electret (formed of elektr- from electricity and -et from magnet) is material that has been permanently electrically charged (polarised). ...

Further reading

• C. L. Stong, "Electrostatic motors are powered by electric field of the Earth". October, 1974. (PDF)
• Oleg D. Jefimenko , "Electrostatic Motors: Their History, Types, and Principles of Operation". Electret Scientific, Star City, 1973.
• G. W. Francis (Author) and Oleg D. Jefimenko (Editor), "Electrostatic Experiments: An Encyclopedia of Early Electrostatic Experiments, Demonstrations, Devices, and Apparatus". Electret Scientific, Star City, 2005.
• V. E. Johnson, "Modern High-Speed Influence Machines; Their principles, construction and applications to radiography, radio-telegraphy, spark photography, electro-culture, electro-therapeutics, high-tension gas ignition, and the testing of materials". ISBN B0000EFPCO
• Alfred W. Simon, "Quantitative Theory of the Influence Electrostatic Generator". Phys. Rev. 24, 690–696 (1924), Issue 6 – December 1924.
• J. Clerk Maxwell, Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism (2nd ed.,Oxford, 1881), vol. i. p.294
• J. D. Everett, Electricity (expansion of part iii. of Deschanels Natural Philosophy) (London, 1901), ch. iv. p. 20
• A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik (Breslau, 1905), vol. iv. pp. 50-58 (contains a large number of references to original papers)
• J. Gray, "Electrical Influence Machines, Their Historical Development and Modern Forms [with instruction on making them]" (London, I903). (J. A. F.)
• Silvanus P. Thompson, The Influence Machine from Nicholson -1788 to 1888, Journ. Soc. Tel. Eng., 1888, 17, p. 569
• John Munro, The Story Of Electricity (The Project Gutenberg Etext)
• A. D. Moore (Editor), "Electrostatics and its Applications". Wiley, New York, 1973.
• Oleg D. Jefimenko (with D. K. Walker), "Electrostatic motors". Phys. Teach. 9, 121-129 (1971).
• W. R. Pidgeon, "An Influence-Machine". Proc. Phys. Soc. London 12 No 1 (October 1892) 406-411.
• W. R. Pidgeon, "An Influence-Machine". Proc. Phys. Soc. London 16 No 1 (October 1897) 253-257.

Oleg D. Jefimenko is a physicist and Professor Emeritus at West Virginia University. ... Silvanus Phillips Thompson (June 19, 1851 – June 12, 1916). ...

External articles and references

• "Electrical (or Electrostatic) Machine". 1911 encyclopedia.
• "How it works : Electricity". triquartz.co.uk.
• de Queiroz, Antonio Carlos M., "Electrostatic Machines".
  • de Queiroz, Antonio Carlos M., "Operation of the Wimshurst machine".
• American Museum of Radio: Electrostatic Machines
• The Bakken Museum: frictional generators
• "Articles on Electrostatics from those that actually made the discoveries". Experiments with non conventional energy technologies.
• Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), "On Electric Machines Founded on Induction and Convection". Philosophical Magazine, January 1868.
• Bill Beaty, "'Kelvin's Thunderstorm'; Lord Kelvin's water-drop electrostatic generator". 1995.
• M Hill and D J Jacobs, "A novel Kelvin Electrostatic Generator". Physics Education, University of York, UK. (PDF)
• Paolo Brenni (Author) and Willem Hackmann (Editor), "The Van de Graaff Generator: An Electrostatic Machine for the 20th Century". Bulletin of the Scientific Instrument Society No. 63 (1999)
• Nikola Tesla, "Possibilities Of Electrostatic Generators". Scientific American, March, 1934. (ed., Available .doc format)
• Lyonel Baum, "1,000,000 Volts, Felici's electrostatic generator". 2000.