NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Endocrine disorders

Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the endocrine system and its specific secretions called hormones. Hormones are molecules that act as signals from one type of cells to another. Most hormones reach their targets via the blood. Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the brain, lungs, heart, intestine, skin, and the kidney), the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses primarily on the endocrine organs, meaning the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion. These organs include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testes, and pancreas. Major endocrine glands. ... A hormone (from Greek horman - to set in motion) is a chemical messenger from one cell (or group of cells) to another. ... Comparative brain sizes In animals, the brain, or encephalon (Greek for in the head), is the control center of the central nervous system. ... The heart and lungs (from an older edition of Grays Anatomy) The lung is an organ belonging to the respiratory system and interfacing to the circulatory system of air-breathing vertebrates. ... The heart and lungs, from an older edition of Grays Anatomy. ... The intestine is the portion of the alimentary canal extending from the stomach to the anus and, in humans and other mammals, consists of two segments, the small intestine and the large intestine. ... A section of Human Skin In zootomy and dermatology, skin is an organ of the integumentary system made up of a layer of tissues that guard underlying muscles and organs. ... Human kidneys viewed from behind with spine removed The kidneys are bean-shaped excretory organs in vertebrates. ... Located at the base of the skull, the pituitary gland is protected by a bony structure called the sella turcica. ... In mammals, the adrenal glands are the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit atop the kidneys. ... Human female internal reproductive anatomy Ovaries are egg-producing reproductive organs found in female organisms. ... Human male anatomy The testicles, known medically as testes (singular testis), are the male generative glands in animals. ... The pancreas is an organ that serves two functions: exocrine - it produces pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. ...

An endocrinologist is a doctor who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, and many others (see list of diseases below). A disease due to a disorder of the endocrine system is often called a "hormone imbalance," but is technically known as an endocrinopathy or endocrinosis. This article is about the disease that features high blood sugar. ... Hyperthyroidism (or overactive thyroid gland) is the clinical syndrome caused by an excess of circulating free thyroxine (T4) or free triiodothyronine (T3), or both. ...

Background

All multicellular organisms need “coordinating systems to regulate and integrate the function of differentiating cells.” Two mechanisms perform this function in higher animals: the nervous system and the endocrine system. The endocrine system acts through the release (generally into the blood) of chemical agents and is vital to the proper development and function of organisms. As Hadley (2000) notes, the integration of developmental events such as proliferation, growth, and differentiation (including histogenesis and organogenesis) and the coordination of metabolism, respiration, excretion, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception depend on “chemical cues, substances synthesised and secreted by the specialised cells within the animal.” Santorio Santorio (1561-1636) in his steelyard balance, from Ars de statica medecina, first published 1614 Metabolism (from Î¼ÎµÏ„Î±Î²Î¿Î»Î¹ÏƒÎ¼Î¿Ï‚ (metabolismos)) is the biochemical modification of chemical compounds in living organisms anggjgjhnd cell (b). ... It has been suggested that Gas exchange be merged into this article or section. ... For other uses, see Reproduction (disambiguation) Reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced. ...

Endocrinology is concerned with the study of the biosynthesis, storage, chemistry, and physiological function of hormones and with the cells of the endocrine glands and tissues that secrete them. The study of endocrinology began when Berthold (1849) noted that castrated cockerels did not develop combs and wattles or exhibit overtly male behaviour. He found that replacement of testes back into the abdominal cavity of the same bird or another castrated bird resulted in normal behavioural and morphological development, and he concluded (erroneously) that the testes secreted a substance that "conditioned" the blood that, in turn, acted on the body of the cockerel. In fact, one of two other things could have been true: that the testes modified or activated a constituent of the blood or that the testes removed an inhibitory factor from the blood. It was not proven that the testes released a substance that engenders male characteristics until it was shown that the extract of testes could replace their function in castrated animals. Pure, crystalline testosterone was isolated in 1935 by David et al. Hormone is also the NATO reporting name for the Soviet/Russian Kamov Ka-25 military helicopter. ... Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group. ...

Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoral approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by classical thinkers such as Aristotle, Hippocrates, Lucretius, Celsus, and Galen, according to Freeman et al (2001), and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology, and organ basis of pathology in the 19th century. Aristotle (Ancient Greek: AristotelÄ“s 384â€“March 7 322 BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... Lucretius Titus Lucretius Carus (ca. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Claudius Galenus of Pergamum (129-200 AD), better known in English as Galen, was an ancient Greek physician. ...

Hormones

Overview

The endocrine system consists of several glands, in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Hormones have many different functions and modes of action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.

In 1902 Bayliss and Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid instilled into the duodenum caused the pancreas to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two. The same response could be produced by injecting jejunal mucosa, showing that some factor in the mucosa was responsible. They named this substance "secretin" and coined the term "hormone" for chemicals that act in this way. They specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ, be released (in small amounts) into the blood, and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most ‘classical’ hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms (chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ), autocrine signals (a chemical that acts on the same cell), and intracrine signals (a chemical that acts within the same cell) (Nussey and Whitehead, 2001). A neuroendocrine signal is a ‘classical’ hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron (see article on Neuroendocrinology). Image File history File links Diagramatic representation of the chemical structure of two amine hormones (norepinephrine and T3) Drawn my myself in Microsoft Word File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Diagramatic representation of the chemical structure of two amine hormones (norepinephrine and T3) Drawn my myself in Microsoft Word File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Diagramatic representation of the chemical structure of two steroid hormones; one with an intact steroid nucleus (cortisol) and one without (vitamin D3) Drawn by myself in Microsoft Word File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to... Image File history File links Diagramatic representation of the chemical structure of two steroid hormones; one with an intact steroid nucleus (cortisol) and one without (vitamin D3) Drawn by myself in Microsoft Word File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to... In anatomy of the digestive system, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. ... The pancreas is an organ that serves two functions: exocrine - it produces pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. ... Secretin is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum. ... Paracrine signalling is a form of signalling in which the target cell is close to the signal releasing cell, and the signal chemical is broken down too quickly to be carried to other parts of the body. ... Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system. ...

Hormones act by binding to specific receptors in the target organ. As Baulieu (1990) notes, a receptor has at least two basic constituents: a recognition site, to which the hormone binds, and an effector site, which precipitates the modification of cellular function. Between these is a "transduction mechanism" in which hormone binding induces allosteric modification that, in turn, produces the appropriate response.

Griffin and Ojeda (2000) identify three different classes of hormone based on their chemical composition:

Amines

Amines, such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine, are derived from single amino acids, in this case tyrosine. Thyroid hormones such as 3,5,3’-triiodothyronine (T3) and 3,5,3’,5’-tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine, T4) make up a subset of this class because they derive from the combination of two iodinated tyrosine amino acid residues. Norepinephrine or noradrenaline is a catecholamine and a phenethylamine with chemical formula C8H11NO3. ... For the Deftones album; see Adrenaline (album). ... Dopamine is a chemical naturally produced in the body. ...

Peptide and Protein

Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three (in the case of thyrotropin-releasing hormone) to more than 200 (in the case of follicle-stimulating hormone) amino acid residues and can have molecular weights as large as 30,000. All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, and insulin from the pancreas. Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is a tripeptide hormone that stimulates the release of TSH and prolactin by the anterior pituitary. ... Follicle stimulating hormone Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is a hormone synthesised and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland. ... Leptin is a 16 kDa protein hormone that plays a key role in regulating energy intake and energy expenditure (appetite and metabolism). ... Ghrelin is a hormone that is produced by cells lining the stomach and stimulates the appetite. ... The structure of insulin. ... The pancreas is an organ that serves two functions: exocrine - it produces pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. ...

Steroid

Steroid hormones are derivatives of cholesterol and are subdivided into those with an intact steroid nucleus (gonadal and adrenal steroids) and those with a broken steroid nucleus (vitamin D). Steroid horomones include estrogen and progesterone from the ovary, testosterone from the testes, and cortisol and aldosterone from the adrenal gland. A steroid is a lipid characterized by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings. ... Cholesterol chemical structure Cholesterol is a sterol (a combination steroid and alcohol) and a lipid found in the cell membranes of all body tissues, and transported in the blood plasma of all animals. ... Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ... Estrogens (also oestrogens) are a group of steroid compounds, named for their importance in the oestrus cycle, functioning as the primary female sex hormone. ... Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. ... Human female internal reproductive anatomy Ovaries are egg-producing reproductive organs found in female organisms. ... Testosterone is a steroid hormone from the androgen group. ... Human male anatomy The testicles, known medically as testes (singular testis), are the male generative glands in animals. ... Cortisol is a corticosteroid hormone that is involved in the response to stress; it increases blood pressure and blood sugar levels and suppresses the immune system. ...

Work

The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations and the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones.

The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing. This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations. Biochemistry laboratory at the University of Cologne. ... Chemical pathology (also known as clinical biochemistry or clinical chemistry) is the area of pathology that is generally concerned with analysis of bodily fluids. ... Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of life, a bridge between biology and chemistry that studies how complex chemical reactions give rise to life. ...

A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease. Atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. Diagnostic imaging of endocrine organs may reveal "spots," called incidentalomas, which do not represent disease. Medical imaging is the process by which physicians evaluate an area of the subjects body that is not normally visible. ... In medicine, an incidentaloma is a tumor (-oma) found by coincidence (incidental) without clinical symptoms and suspicion. ...

Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are chronic diseases that need life-long care. The most common of these is diabetes mellitus. Care of diabetes and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician-patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process. Medicine In medicine, a persistent and lasting condition is said to be chronic (from Greek chronos). ... For the disease characterized by excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine, see diabetes insipidus. ...

Apart from treating patients, many endocrinologists are involved in clinical science and medical research, teaching, and hospital management. Clinical science is the practical study of medical principles or investigations using controlled procedures to evaluate results. ... Medical research is research conducted to aid the body of knowledge in the field of medicine. ... In education, teachers are those who teach students or pupils, often a course of study or a practical skill. ...

Training

Endocrinologists are specialists of internal medicine or pediatrics. Reproductive endocrinologists deal primarily with problems of fertility and menstrual function. Most qualify as an internist, pediatrician, or gynecologist for a few years before specializing, depending on the local training system. In the U.S. and Canada, training for board certification in internal medicine, pediatrics, or gynecology after medical school is called residency. Further formal training to subspecialize in adult, pediatric, or reproductive endocrinology is called a fellowship. Typical training for a North American endocrinologist involves 4 years of college, 4 years of medical school, 3 years of residency, and 3 years of fellowship. Internal medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of internal diseases, that is, those that affect internal organs or the body as a whole. ... Pediatric polysomnography patient Childrens Hospital (Saint Louis), 2006 Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents (from newborn to age 18 or 19). ... Fertility is the ability of people or animals to produce healthy offspring in abundance. ... Internal medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of internal diseases, that is, those that affect internal organs or the body as a whole. ... Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics or pædiatrics) is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants and children. ... The shamefulness associated with the examination of female genitalia has long inhibited the science of gynaecology. ... Pediatric polysomnography patient Childrens Hospital (Saint Louis), 2006 Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents (from newborn to age 18 or 19). ... The shamefulness associated with the examination of female genitalia has long inhibited the science of gynaecology. ... Pediatric endocrinology is a medical subspecialty dealing with variations of physical growth and sexual development in childhood, as well as diabetes and other disorders of the endocrine glands. ...

Diseases

In mammals, the adrenal glands are the triangle-shaped endocrine glands that sit atop the kidneys. ... In medicine, adrenal insufficiency (or hypocortisolism) is the inability of the adrenal gland to produce adequate amounts of cortisol in response to stress. ... Addisons disease (also known as chronic adrenal insufficiency, or hypocortisolism) is a rare endocrine disorder. ... Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) refers to any of several autosomal recessive diseases resulting from defects in steps of the synthesis of cortisol from cholesterol by the adrenal glands. ... Conns syndrome is overproduction of the mineralocorticoid hormone aldosterone by the adrenal glands. ... A pheochromocytoma (also phaeochromocytoma, English spelling) is a tumor of the medulla of the adrenal glands originating in the chromaffin cells, which secretes excessive amounts of catecholamines, usually epinephrine and norepinephrine. ... Adrenocortical carcinoma is a carcinoma of the cortex (outer layer) of the adrenal gland. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is one of the most important carbohydrates. ... For the disease characterized by excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine, see diabetes insipidus. ... Hypoglycemia is a medical term referring to a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal amount of sugar (glucose) in the blood. ... Idiopathic or common hypoglycemia is a condition in which the glucose level in the blood (blood glucose) is abnormally low. ... An insulinoma is a tumour of the pancreas derived from the beta cells which while retaining the ability to synthesize and secrete insulin is autonomous of the normal feedback mechanisms. ... Grays illustration of a human femur, a typically recognized bone. ... Osteoporosis is a disease of bone in which bone mineral density (BMD) is reduced, bone microarchitecture is disrupted, the amount and variety of non-collagenous proteins in bone is changed, and a concomitantly fracture risk is increased. ... X-ray of the legs in a two-year-old child with rickets Rickets is a disorder of infancy and early childhood of multiple etiologies. ... X-ray of the legs in a two-year-old child with rickets Osteomalacia (pronounced ), also known as bow-leggedness or rickets (taken from the Greek word (rhÃ¡kis), meaning spine), is a disorder most commonly caused by Vitamin D deficiency. ... Located at the base of the skull, the pituitary gland is protected by a bony structure called the sella turcica. ... Diabetes insipidus (DI) is a disease characterized by excretion of large amounts of severely diluted urine, which cannot be reduced when fluid intake is reduced. ... Hypopituitarism is a medical term describing deficiency (hypo) of one or more hormones of the pituitary gland. ... Hypopituitarism is a medical term describing deficiency (hypo) of one or more hormones of the pituitary gland. ... Pituitary adenomas are tumors that occur in the pituitary gland, and account for about 10% of intracranial neoplasms. ... Pituitary adenomas are tumors that occur in the pituitary gland, and account for about 10% of intracranial neoplasms. ... A prolactinoma is a benign tumor (adenoma) of the pituitary gland that produces a hormone called prolactin. ... Prolactin is a hormone secreted by lactotropes in the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary gland) which is made up of 199 amino acids with a molecular weight of about 23,000 daltons. ... Rondo Hatton, a famous sufferer of acromegaly whose face was distorted by the disorder. ... Anna Haining Bates with her parents Gigantism or giantism, (from Greek gigas, gigantos giant) is a condition characterized by excessive height growth. ... Cushings syndrome or hypercortisolism is an endocrine disorder caused by excessive levels of the endogenous corticosteroid hormone cortisol. ... The four human parathyroid glands are adjacent to the thyroid. ... Primary hyperparathyroidism causes hypercalcemia (elevated blood calcium levels) through the excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH), usually by an adenoma (benign tumors) of the parathyroid glands. ... Secondary hyperparathyroidism refers to the excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) by the parathyroid glands in response to hypocalcemia (low blood calcium levels). ... Tertiary hyperparathyroidism is a state of excessive secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH) after a long period of secondary hyperparathyroidism and resulting in hypercalcemia. ... In medicine (endocrinology), hypoparathyroidism is decreased function of the parathyroid glands, leading to decreased levels of parathyroid hormone (PTH). ... Pseudohypoparathyroidism is a condition that mimics hypoparathyroidism, but is due to a resistance to parathyroid hormone, rather than a lack of the hormone (akin to the distinction between Type 1 diabetes and Type 2 diabetes. ... An intersexual is a person (or individual of any unisexual species) who is born with genitalia and/or secondary sexual characteristics of indeterminate sex, or which combine features of both sexes. ... Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS, or Androgen resistance syndrome) is a set of disorders of sexual differentiation that results from mutations of the gene encoding the androgen receptor. ... Hypogonadism is a medical term for a defect of the reproductive system which results in lack of function of the gonads (ovaries or testes). ... Hypogonadism is a medical term for a defect of the reproductive system which results in lack of function of the gonads (ovaries or testes). ... Kallmann syndrome is an example of hypogonadism (decreased functioning of the sex hormone-producing glands) caused by a deficiency of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), which is created by the hypothalamus. ... XXY karyotype Klinefelters syndrome is a condition caused by a chromosome abnormality in males (specifically, a nondisjunction); sufferers have a pair of X sex chromosomes instead of just one. ... The word gender describes the state of being male, female, or neither. ... Gender identity disorder, as identified by psychologists and medical doctors, is a condition with which a person who has been assigned one gender (usually at birth on the basis of their sex, but compare intersexual), but identifies as belonging to another gender, or does not conform with the gender role... Puberty is described as delayed when a boy or girl has passed the usual age of onset of puberty with no physical or hormonal signs that it is beginning. ... Precocious puberty means early puberty. ... Amenorrhoea (BE) or amenorrhea (AmE) is the absence of a menstrual period in a woman of reproductive age. ... Polycystic Ovary by Sonography Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS, also known clinically as Stein-Leventhal syndrome), is an endocrine disorder that affects 5â€“10% of women. ... Hyperthyroidism (or overactive thyroid gland) is the clinical syndrome caused by an excess of circulating free thyroxine (T4) or free triiodothyronine (T3), or both. ... Graves-Basedow disease is a medical disorder that may manifest several different conditions including hyperthyroidism (over activity of thyroid hormone production), infiltrative exopthalmos (protruberance of one or both eyes and associated problems) and infiltrative dermopathy (a skin condition usually of the lower extremities). ... Hypothyroidism is the disease state caused by insufficient production of thyroid hormone by the thyroid gland. ... Thyroid cancer is cancer of the thyroid gland. ... Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) (or multiple endocrine adenomas, or multiple endocrine adenomatosis -- MEA) consists of three syndromes featuring tumors of endocrine glands, each with its own characteristic pattern. ... Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 is part of a group of disorders that affect the endocrine system. ... In medicine, autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes are a heterogenous group of rare diseases characterised by autoimmune activity against more than one endocrine organs, although non-endocrine organs can be affected. ... In medicine, an incidentaloma is a tumor (-oma) found by coincidence (incidental) without clinical symptoms and suspicion. ...

See also

Pediatric endocrinology is a medical subspecialty dealing with variations of physical growth and sexual development in childhood, as well as diabetes and other disorders of the endocrine glands. ... Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system. ...

References

External links

Societies and associations

Categories: Endocrine system | Endocrinology Health science is the discipline of applied science which deals with human and animal health. ... Medicine is the branch of health science and the sector of public life concerned with maintaining human health or restoring it through the treatment of disease and injury. ... Cetacaine, a typical topical anesthetic Anesthesia (American English), also anaesthesia (British English), is the process of blocking the perception of pain and other sensations. ... Dermatology (from Greek derma, skin) is a branch of medicine dealing with the skin and its appendages (hair, nails, sweat glands etc). ... Emergency medicine is a branch of medicine that is practiced in a hospital emergency department, in the field (in a modified form; see EMS), and other locations where initial medical treatment of illness takes place. ... A general practitioner (GP) or family physician (FP) is a physician/medical doctor who provides primary care. ... Internal medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of internal diseases, that is, those that affect internal organs or the body as a whole. ... Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... The shamefulness associated with the examination of female genitalia has long inhibited the science of gynaecology. ... // What is occupational medicine Occupational medicine is the branch of clinical medicine most active in the field of occupational health. ... Pathology (from Greek pathos, feeling, pain, suffering; and logos, study of; see also -ology) is the study of the processes underlying disease and other forms of illness, harmful abnormality, or dysfunction. ... Pediatric polysomnography patient Childrens Hospital (Saint Louis), 2006 Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants, children, and adolescents (from newborn to age 18 or 19). ... Physical medicine and rehabilitation (PM&R) or physiatry is a branch of medicine dealing with functional restoration of a person affected by physical disability. ... Podiatry (US English), or chiropody (British English), is a field of healthcare devoted to the study and treatment of disorders of the foot and ankle (translated literally, chiropody refers to medicine of the hand and foot, but the term no longer has this meaning). ... Psychiatry is the branch of medicine that studies, diagnoses, and treats mental illness and behavioral disorders. ... Public health is concerned with threats to the overall health of a community based on population health analysis. ... It has been suggested that medical imaging be merged into this article or section. ... A typical modern surgical operation For other uses, see Surgery (disambiguation). ... Internal medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of internal diseases, that is, those that affect internal organs or the body as a whole. ... Cardiology is the branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the heart and blood vessels. ... Gastroenterology or gastrology is the medical specialty concerned with the field of digestive diseases. ... Hematology is the branch of medicine that is concerned with blood and its disorders. ... In medicine, infectious disease or communicable disease is disease caused by a biological agent such as by a virus, bacterium or parasite. ... Intensive Care Medicine or critical care medicine is concerned with providing greater than ordinary medical care and observation to people in a critical or unstable condition. ... Nephrology is the branch of internal medicine dealing with the study of the function and diseases of the kidney. ... Oncology is the medical subspecialty dealing with the study and treatment of cancer. ... In medicine, pulmonology (aka pneumology) is the specialty that deals with diseases of the lungs and the respiratory tract. ... Rheumatology, a subspecialty of internal medicine, is devoted to the diagnosis and treatment of rheumatic diseases. ... A typical modern surgical operation For other uses, see Surgery (disambiguation). ... A surgeon operating General Surgery deals with surgical treatment of abdominal organs, e. ... In medicine, the field of (cardio)thoracic surgery or cardiovascular surgery is involved in the surgical treatment of diseases affecting organs inside the thorax, i. ... Old German engraving depicting a trepanation, an ancient and still performed neurosurgical procedure Neurosurgery is the surgical discipline focused on treating those central and peripheral nervous system diseases amenable to mechanical intervention. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Link titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleLink titleAn organ transplant is the transplantation of a whole or partial organ from one body to another (or from a donor site on the patients own body... Orthopedic surgery or orthopedics (Commonwealth: orthopaedics) is the branch of surgery concerned with acute, chronic, traumatic, and recurrent injuries and other disorders of the musculoskeletal system, its muscular and bone parts. ... Otolaryngology is the branch of medicine that specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of ear, nose, throat, and head & neck disorders. ... Pediatric surgery is a subspecialty of surgery involving the surgery of fetuses, infants, children, adolescents, and young adults. ... Plastic surgery is a general term for operative manual madlena and instrumental treatment which is performed for functional or aesthetic reasons. ... Podiatric surgery refers to surgery performed by a foot doctor. Unlike other specialists, a Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (D.P.M.) is a separate education from that of a Medical Doctor (M.D.) or Doctor of Osteopathy (D.O.). M.D.s and D.O.s differ in their approach... Urology is the field of surgery that focuses on the urinary tracts of males and females, and of the male reproductive system. ... Vascular surgery is the branch of surgery that occupies itself with surgical interventions of arteries and veins, as well as conservative therapies for disease of the peripheral vascular system. ... Major endocrine glands. ... Grays Fig. ... The corpus luteum (Latin for yellow body) is a small, temporary endocrine structure in mammals that develops from an ovarian follicle during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, following the release of a mature egg during ovulation. ... In the anatomy of mammals, the hypothalamus is a region of the brain located below the thalamus, forming the major portion of the ventral region of the diencephalon and functioning to regulate certain metabolic processes and other autonomic activities. ... Human kidneys viewed from behind with spine removed The kidneys are bean-shaped excretory organs in vertebrates. ... Human female internal reproductive anatomy Ovaries are egg-producing reproductive organs found in female organisms. ... The pancreas is an organ that serves two functions: exocrine - it produces pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes. ... The four human parathyroid glands are adjacent to the thyroid. ... Diagram of pituitary and pineal glands. ... Located at the base of the skull, the pituitary gland is protected by a bony structure called the sella turcica. ... Human male anatomy The testicles, known medically as testes (singular testis), are the male generative glands in animals. ... The thyroid gland and its relations The thyroid is one of the larger endocrine glands in the body. ...

Contents

Background GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");