Energy development is the ongoing effort to provide abundant and accessible energy through knowledge, skills, and constructions. When harnessing energy from primary energy sources and converting them into ever more convenient secondary energy forms, such as electrical energy and cleaner fuels, both quantity (harnessing more energy) and quality (more efficient use) are important. Primary energy is energy contained in raw fuels and any other forms of energy received by a system as input to the system. ... Electrical energy or Electromagnetic energy is a form of energy present in any electric field or magnetic field, or in any volume containing electromagnetic radiation. ... For information on the band, see Fuel (band). ...

Dependence on external energy sources

All biological life needs a supply of external energy. Most plants are capable of photosynthesis, some bacteria employ natural sources of chemical energy. Many other organisms thrive on energy passed along in food chains. Life is a multi-faceted concept. ... Divisions Green algae land plants (embryophytes) non-vascular embryophytes Hepatophyta - liverworts Anthocerophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses vascular plants (tracheophytes) seedless vascular plants Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses Equisetophyta - horsetails Pteridophyta - true ferns Psilotophyta - whisk ferns Ophioglossophyta - adderstongue ferns seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering... Leaf. ... Phyla/Divisions Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Omnibacteria Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria is also the fictional name of a warring nation under Benzino Napaloni as dictator, in the 1940 film The Great Dictator... Figure 1. ...

Beyond the biological needs of humanity, energy sources are used to enable advanced activities such as heating, cooking, transport, communication, warfare and social and leisure activities. This allows us, in general, to live under diverse climatic conditions, in great numbers and often in comfort. Level of dependence of human societies on external energy sources differs, as does the climate, comfort and output of each society. HVAC may also stand for High-voltage alternating current HVAC is an initialism that stands for heating, ventilation and air-conditioning. This is sometimes referred to as climate control. ... Cooking is the act of preparing food for consumption. ... Communication is the process of exchanging information usually via a common system of symbols. ... For other uses of War, see War (disambiguation). ...

Increased levels of human comfort require increased dependence on external energy sources. Energy development therefore embodies the idea of increasing human comfort and freedom by researching and implementing increasingly effective and responsible energy harvesting and utilisation schemes. Research is an in inactive, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviours, or theories, or to make practical applications with the help of such facts, laws or theories. ...

Limitations to energy development

Use of any given energy source in human societies encounters limits to quantitative expansion. At the beginning of the 21st century some issues have achieved global dimension. Principal fossil energy sources, such as oil and natural gas are approaching exhaustion that may occur within the span of a generation (see Hubbert peak hypothesis). Closely linked to energy development are concerns about the environmental effects of energy use, such as climate changes. Energy development issues are part of the much debated sustainable development problem. ... In calendars based on the Christian Era or Common Era, such as the Gregorian calendar, the 21st century is the current century, as of this writing. ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ... Oil is a generic term for organic liquids that are not miscible with water. ... Natural gas (commonly refered to as gas in many countries) is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane. ... Generation is the act of producing offspring, or procreation. ... The Hubbert peak theory, also known as peak oil, is an influential theory concerning the long-term rate of conventional oil (and other fossil fuel) extraction and depletion. ... In politics and other non-technical contexts, nature or (the) (natural) environment often refers to that part of the natural world that people deem important or valuable, for any reason — economic, aesthetic, philosophical, hedonistic, sentimental, etc. ... Variations in CO2, temperature and dust from the Vostok ice core over the last 400 000 years The term climate change is used to refer to changes in the Earths global climate or regional climates. ... Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, according to Our Common Future, a 1987 report from the UN. One of the factors which sustainable development must overcome is environmental degradation. ...

Energy sources

Energy sources are substances or processes with concentrations of energy at a high enough potential to be feasibly encouraged to convert to lower energy forms under human control for human benefit. Except for nuclear fuels, tidal energy and geothermal energy, all terrestrial energy sources are solar. And ultimately, solar energy itself is nuclear. Nuclear Fuel is used to generate Nuclear power. ... Tidal power is a means of electricity generation achieved by capturing the energy contained in moving water mass due to tides. ... Geothermal power is electricity generated by utilizing naturally occurring geological heat sources. ... Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ...

Fossil Fuels

Main article: Fossil fuel

Fossil fuels, in terms of energy, involve the burning of coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. This combustion creates steam, which turns a turbine, which, in turn, generates electricity. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio Fossil fuels, also known as mineral fuels, are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ... Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground either by underground mining, open-pit mining or strip mining. ... In chemistry, a hydrocarbon is any chemical compound that consists only of carbon (C) and hydrogen (H). ... Divisions Land plants (embryophytes) Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) Hepatophyta - liverworts Anthocerophyta - hornworts Bryophyta - mosses Vascular plants (tracheophytes) Lycopodiophyta - clubmosses Equisetophyta - horsetails Pteridophyta - true ferns Psilotophyta - whisk ferns Ophioglossophyta - adderstongues Seed plants (spermatophytes) †Pteridospermatophyta - seed ferns Pinophyta - conifers Cycadophyta - cycads Ginkgophyta - ginkgo Gnetophyta - gnetae Magnoliophyta - flowering plants Adiantum pedatum (a fern... Phyla Porifera (sponges) Ctenophora (comb jellies) Cnidaria Placozoa Subregnum Bilateria  Acoelomorpha  Orthonectida  Rhombozoa  Myxozoa  Superphylum Deuterostomia     Chordata (vertebrates, etc. ... Combustion or burning is an exothermic reaction between a substance (the fuel) and a gas (the oxidizer), usually O2, to release heat. ... In physical chemistry and in engineering, steam refers to vaporized water. ... WWII era steam turbine used for ship propulsion. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ... Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground either by underground mining, open-pit mining or strip mining. ... Nodding donkey pumping an oil well near Sarnia, Ontario, 2001 Petroleum (from Latin petra – rock and oleum – oil), crude oil, sometimes colloquially called black gold, is a thick, dark brown or greenish flammable liquid, which exists in the upper strata of some areas of the Earths crust. ... Natural gas (commonly refered to as gas in many countries) is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane. ...

Pros

• Because it is based on the simple process of combustion, the burning of fossil fuels can generate very large amounts of electricity with a small amount of fuel. Gas-fired power plant are efficient, and coal power plants have improved over the past few years.
• Fossil fuels are readily available and are currently plentiful. If more energy is required, the only step required is to obtain more fuel. Fossil fuels are easy to obtain by extraction. The transport of these fuels is also straightforward, especially if the plant is located close to the fuel source.
• Fossil fuels are cheap compared to other types of energy. Because there are large deposits of fossil fuels in the world, the per-unit cost is relatively low. Furthermore, the technology already exists for the use of fossil fuels, meaning consumers do not have to spend money switching to other technologies.

A power station (also power plant) is a facility for the generation of electric power. ... In chemistry, liquid-liquid extraction is a useful method to separate components (compounds) of a mixture. ... // Technology [from Gr. ...

Cons

• They are considered non-renewable resources, which will eventually run out. Fossil fuels are actually produced continuously, but we are using them up at a rate 100,000 times faster than they are formed.
• Extracting fossil fuels will become more difficult as we consume the most accessible fuel deposits. Extraction of fossil fuels is expected to become more expensive and more dangerous as mines get deeper and oil rigs go further out to sea.
• The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of pollution into the atmosphere. Some of these by-products, such as carbon dioxide, are heat-trapping gases, which enhance the “greenhouse effect” leading to global warming. Other pollutants, including sulphur dioxide, are present in acid precipitation, and the drilling and transport of petroleum cause areas, which are susceptible to oil spills.

// Renewable energy (sources) or RES capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. ... Mine can refer to a number of things: Mines are tunnels used in mining for extraction of resources. ... Natural gas drilling rig A drilling rig or oil rig is a structure housing equipment used to drill for and extract oil or natural gas from underground reservoirs. ... Pollution is the release of harmful environmental contaminants, or the substances so released. ... Atmosphere may refer to: a celestial body atmosphere, e. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... The greenhouse effect, first discovered by Joseph Fourier in 1824, is the process by which an atmosphere warms a planet. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1856-2004 Mean temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is a term used to describe the increase over time of the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans. ... Sulfur dioxide (or Sulphur dioxide) has the chemical formula SO2. ... An electric drill A drill is a tool with a rotary drill bit used to bore holes through material. ...

Wind Power

Main article: Wind power

This type of energy harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. These turbines cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity. Wind towers are usually built together on wind farms. Wind power is the kinetic energy of wind, or the extraction of this energy by wind turbines. ... A tall tower holds a wind turbine aloft where winds are consistently stronger. ... Magnetic lines of force of a bar magnet shown by iron filings on paper A magnet is an object that has a magnetic field. ... Wind turbines in Neuenkirchen, Dithmarschen (Germany). ...

Pros

• Wind power produces no water or air pollution that can contaminate the environment. Because there are no chemical processes involved in wind power generation, there are no by-products, such as carbon dioxide, left over.
• Wind generation is a renewable source of energy, which means that we will never run out of it.
• Wind towers can be beneficial for people living permanently, or temporarily, in remote areas. It may be difficult to transport electricity through wires from a power plant to a far-away location and thus, wind towers can be set up at the remote setting.

A chemical reaction is a process involving one, two or more substances (called reactants), characterized by a chemical change and yielding one or more product(s) which are different from the reactants. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... // Renewable energy (sources) or RES capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. ...

Cons

• Wind power is not reliable, because consistent wind is needed to ensure continuous power generation. When the wind speed decreases, the turbine lingers and less electricity is generated. Thus, the production at any time is unpredictable.
• One wind turbine does not generate very much electricity, when compared to the energy generated by one fossil fuel power plant. In fact, an entire field of wind towers, called a wind farm, is required, taking up a lot of land.
• Installing wind farms in an area may destroy its natural beauty. Wind farms can have a significant visual impact on the horizon and may obstruct natural or man made landforms that may interest the viewer.

Biomass

Main article: Biomass

Biomass production involves using garbage or renewable resources, especially vegetation, like maize, to generate electricity. When garbage decomposes the methane produced is captured in pipes and later burned to produce electricity. Vegetation and wood can be burned directly, like fossil fuels, to generate energy, or processed to form alcohols. Biomass im a loser organic non-fossil material, collectively. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... // Renewable energy (sources) or RES capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. ... Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of an area; it refers to the ground cover provided by plants, and is by far the most abundant biotic element of the biosphere. ... Binomial name Zea mays L. Maize (Zea mays ssp. ... Rotting fruit Decomposition is the reduction of bodies and other formerly living organisms into simpler forms of matter and, most particularly, to the fate of the human body after death. ... The simplest hydrocarbon, methane, is a gas with a chemical formula of CH4. ... In general usage, alcohol (from Arabic al-khwl الكحول, or al-ghawl الغول) refers almost always to ethanol, also known as grain alcohol, and often to any beverage that contains ethanol (see alcoholic beverage). ...

Pros

• Biomass production can be used to burn organic waste products resulting from agriculture. This type of recycling encourages the philosophy that nothing on this Earth should be wasted. The result is less demand on the Earth's resources, and a higher carrying capacity for Earth because non-renewable fossil fuels are not consumed.
• Biomass is abundant on Earth and is generally renewable. In theory, we will never run out of organic waste products as fuel, because we are continuously producing them. In addition, biomass is found throughout the world, a fact that should alleviate energy pressures in third world nations.
• When methods of biomass production other than direct combustion of plant mass, such as fermentation and pyrolysis, are used, there is little effect on the environment. Alcohols and other fuels produced by these alternative methods biomass are clean burning and are feasible replacements to fossil fuels.

Organic has several meanings and related topics. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... In its strictest sense, fermentation (formerly called zymnosis) is the energy-yielding anaerobic metabolic breakdown of a nutrient molecule, such as glucose, without net oxidation. ... Pyrolysis is formally defined as chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of oxygen. ...

Cons

• The direct combustion leads to air pollution. It produces also carbon dioxide, but unlike fossil fuels, such release is not responsible for a surplus of accumulating CO2: it is part of a cycle where plants consume it to produce new biomass.
• This type of energy production is not currently cost effective, because the production of biomass and its subsequent conversion to alcohols is particularly expensive.
• If implemented on a small scale, biomass production most likely results in a net loss of energy because the energy required to grow the plant mass is greater than the electricity gained from it. Thus, large-scale generation is ideal.

This power plant in New Mexico releases sulfur dioxide and particulate matter into the air. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ...

Hydrogen Fuel

Main article: Hydrogen economy

In order to use hydrogen fuel as an energy source, a fuel cell is needed to convert the chemicals hydrogen and oxygen into water, and in the process, produce electricity. A hydrogen economy is a hypothetical future economy in which the primary form of stored energy for mobile applications and load balancing is hydrogen. ... A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless Atomic mass 15. ... Water (from the Old English word wæter; c. ...

Pros

• Hydrogen is colourless, odourless and entirely non-polluting, the only product of combusting oxygen and hydrogen is pure water. This eliminates the direct production of exhaust gases that lead to smog, and carbon dioxide emissions that enhance the effect of global warming.
• Hydrogen is the lightest chemical element and has the best energy-to-weight ratio of any fuel. Because of this, hydrogen can be economically competitive with gasoline or diesel as a transportation fuel.
• Hydrogen can be produced anywhere, insinuating that it can be produced domestically from the decomposition the most abundant chemical on earth: water. Consequently, countries do not have to rely on OPEC countries for fossil fuels. Hydrogen can be produced from domestic sources and the price can be established within the country.

Victorian-era London was notorious for its thick smogs, or pea-soupers, a fact that is often recreated to add an air of mystery to a period costume drama. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1856-2004 Mean temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is a term used to describe the increase over time of the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans. ... Gasoline, as it is known in North America, or petrol, in many Commonwealth countries (sometimes also called motor spirit) is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. ... Diesel fuel is a specific distillate fraction of fuel oil that is used in a diesel engine invented by German engineer Rudolf Diesel, and perfected by Charles F. Kettering. ... A domestic goat Domestic can refer to: An animal or plant that has been domesticated A domestic worker Something pertaining to home Domestic policy is that policy relevant within a country A lobby term for women or girls This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that... Logo The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is made up of Algeria, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela; since 1965, its international headquarters have been in Vienna, Austria. ...

Cons

• It is currently very difficult to obtain hydrogen gas without expending energy in the process. Because it is an extremely reactive element, hydrogen never exists in its pure form in the environment. Furthermore, the process of splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen using electrolysis consumes large amounts of energy. It has been calculated that it takes 1.4 billion kWh of electricity to produce 1 billion kWh of hydrogen (Pimentel, 2002). If oil or gases are used to provide this energy, fossil fuels are consumed, forming pollution and nullifying the value of using a fuel cell. It would be more efficient to use fossil fuel directly.
• There is currently a lack of infrastructure and distribution network required to support the widespread use of hydrogen as a fuel. It would cost a lot of money and energy to build hydrogen plants and to replace every car and bus with a hydrogen engine and fuel tank. Furthermore, the infrastructure to service these technologies does not currently exist.
• Hydrogen is complicated to handle, store, and transport. It requires heavy, cumbersome tanks when stored as a gas, and complex insulating bottles if stored as a cryogenic liquid. If it is needed at a moderate temperature and pressure, a metal hydride absorber may be needed. Transport is also a problem, because hydrogen leaks effortlessly from containers, reducing the efficiency of the fuel. These hassles make hydrogen power very expensive.
• Current efficient fuel cell designs are expensive sice they need Platinum as a catalyst.

This article is about electronics. ... In chemistry and manufacturing, electrolysis is a method of separating bonded elements and compounds by passing an electric current through them. ... A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i. ... This page deals with mathematical distributions. ... It has been suggested that networking be merged into this article or section. ... Cryogenics is the study of very low temperatures or the production of the same, and is often confused with cryobiology, the study of the effect of low temperatures on organisms, or the study of cryopreservation. ... Temperature is the physical property of a system which underlies the common notions of hot and cold; the material with the higher temperature is said to be hotter. ... Pressure is the application of force to a surface, and the concentration of that force in a given area. ... A Hydride is a chemical compound or form of a bond between hydrogen with a metal usually found in group 1 of the Periodic table, usually with a more electropositive element or group. ... A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i. ... General Name, Symbol, Number platinum, Pt, 78 Chemical series transition metals Group, Period, Block 10, 6, d Appearance grayish white Atomic mass 195. ...

Tidal Power

Main article: Tidal power

Tidal energy involves building a dam across the opening to a tidal basin, called an estuary. The dam, called a barrage, is composed of turbines, located within tunnels in the dam that rotate when a tide comes in, generating electricity. Tidal power is a means of electricity generation achieved by capturing the energy contained in moving water mass due to tides. ... Scrivener Dam, Canberra Australia, was engineered to withstand a once-in-5000-years flood event A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment. ... Estuaries and coastal waters are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth, providing numerous ecological, economic, cultural, and aesthetic benefits and services. ... A barrage may be a weir at the mouth of a slow-flowing river such as the Murray River to maintain a separation between fresh and salt water or reduce the risk of tidal flooding up the river a large amount of coordinated artillery or depth charge fire The name... WWII era steam turbine used for ship propulsion. ... A disused railway tunnel now converted to pedestrian and bicycle use, near Houyet, Belgium A tunnel is an underground passage. ...

Pros

• Tidal power is free once the dam is built. This is because tidal power harnesses the natural power of tides and does not consume fuel. In addition, the maintenance costs associated with running a tidal station are relatively inexpensive.
• Tides are very reliable because it is easy to predict when high and low tides will occur. The tide goes in and out twice a day usually at the predicted times. This makes tidal energy easy to maintain, and positive and negative spikes in energy can be managed.
• Tidal energy is renewable, because nothing is consumed in the rising of tides. Tidal power relies on the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun, which pull the sea backwards and forwards, generating tides.

The tide is the regular rising and falling of the oceans surface caused by changes in gravitational forces external to the Earth. ... // Renewable energy (sources) or RES capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. ... This article covers the physics of gravitation. ... Crust composition Oxygen 43% Silicon 21% Aluminium 10% Calcium 9% Iron 9% Magnesium 5% Titanium 2% Nickel 0. ... The Sun is the star at the centre of our Solar system. ...

Cons

• Tidal power is not currently economically feasible, because the initial costs of building a dam are tremendous. Furthermore, the efficiency of the tide is reduced because it only provides power for around 10 hours each day, when the tide is moving in or out of the basin.
• The barrage construction can affect the transportation system in water. Boats may not be able to cross the barrage, and commercial ships, used for transport or fishery, need to find alternative routes or costly systems to go through the barrage.
• The erection of a barrage may destroy the aquatic ecosystems surrounding it. The environment affected by the dam is very wide, altering areas numerous miles upstream and downstream. For example, many birds rely on low tides to unearth mud flats, which are used as feeding areas.

Lobster boat A boat is a watercraft, usually smaller than most ships. ... A lobster boat unloading its catch in Ilfracombe harbour, North Devon, England A fishery (plural: fisheries) is an organized effort by humans to catch fish or other aquatic species, an activity known as fishing. ... Italic text Some of the biodiversity of a coral reef. ... Orders Many - see section below. ... Mudflats are relatively flat, muddy regions found in intertidal areas. ...

Solar Power

Main article: Solar power

Solar power involves using solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity, or using sunlight hitting a parabolic mirror to heat water, producing steam. Solar power describes a number of methods of harnessing energy from the light of the sun. ... A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is a semiconductor device consisting of a large-area p-n junction diode, which, in the presence of sunlight is capable of generating usable electrical energy. ... Sunlight is also the trade name of the worlds first packaged, branded laundry soap producted by Lever Brothers. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ... A parabolic reflector (also known as a parabolic dish or a parabolic mirror) is a reflective device formed in the shape of a paraboloid of revolution. ... Water (from the Old English word wæter; c. ... In physical chemistry and in engineering, steam refers to vaporized water. ...

Pros

• Solar power is a renewable resource. As long as the Sun exists, its energy will reach Earth.
• Solar power generation releases no water or air pollution, because there is no combustion of fuels.
• In sunny countries, solar power can be used in remote locations, like a wind turbine. This way, isolated places can receive electricity, when there is no way to connect to the power lines from a plant.

// Renewable energy (sources) or RES capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. ... The Sun is the star at the centre of our Solar system. ... Earth, also known as the Earth, Terra, and (mostly in the 19th century) Tellus, is the third planet outward from the Sun. ... This power plant in New Mexico releases sulfur dioxide and particulate matter into the air. ... Combustion or burning is an exothermic reaction between a substance (the fuel) and a gas (the oxidizer), usually O2, to release heat. ... Power Line is a conservative blog run by three lawyers, John H. Hinderaker (Hindrocket), Scott W. Johnson (The Big Trunk) and Paul Mirengoff (Deacon). Power Line covers political and social issues relevant to conservative Americans. ...

Cons

• Solar power is not very reliable because it depends on the amount of sunlight that reaches the Earth at any given time. This makes a solar cell ineffectual during the night when sunlight does not reach the part of the Earth in which the cell is located. It is also limited by the amount of cloud cover that blocks sunlight.
• Solar power is not currently cost effective. A solar power station is expensive to build, and the energy payback time - the time necessary for producing the same amount of energy than needed for building the power device - for photovoltaic cells is large, of the order of five to six years.
• In order to use solar power effectively throughout the day, storage and back up are necessary to accumulate the energy generated at times of sunlight.

Night is the time when a location is facing away from the Sun, and thus dark. ... Cumulus of fair weather A cloud is a visible mass of condensation droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth or another planetary body. ... A photovoltaic cell is a device that turns light into electric energy. ... Storage is the at least semi-permanent holding of an amount of something. ... Backup in computer engineering refers to the copying of data for the purpose of having a second copy of an original source, in case of damage to the original data source. ...

Geothermal Energy

Main article: Geothermal power

Geothermal energy harnesses the heat energy present underneath the Earth. The hot rocks heat water to produce steam. When holes are drilled in the region, the steam that shoots up is purified and is used to drive turbines, which power electric generators. Thermally active area, New Zealand. ... Earth, also known as the Earth, Terra, and (mostly in the 19th century) Tellus, is the third planet outward from the Sun. ... Sedimentary, volcanic, plutonic, metamorphic rock types of North America. ... Water (from the Old English word wæter; c. ... In physical chemistry and in engineering, steam refers to vaporized water. ... ... WWII era steam turbine used for ship propulsion. ... Generator redirects here. ...

Pros

• Geothermal energy produces no air or water pollution because the steam released is not heated by the burning of a fuel, but rather, by the core of the Earth.
• Once a geothermal power station is implemented, the energy produced from the station is practically free. A small amount of energy is required in order to run a pump, although this pump can be powered by excess energy generated at the plant.
• Geothermal powers stations are relatively small, and have a lesser impact on the environment than tidal or hydroelectric plants. Because geothermal technology does not rely no large bodies of water, but rather, small, but powerful jets of water, like geysers, large generating stations can be avoided without losing functionality.

Pollution is the release of harmful environmental contaminants, or the substances so released. ... A pump is a mechanical device used to move liquids or gases. ... Clepsydra Geyser in Yellowstone A geyser is a type of hot spring that erupts periodically, ejecting a column of hot water and steam into the air (Bryan 1995). ...

Cons

• Geothermal energy is only sufficient as source of power in certain areas of the world. These regions require the presence of hot rocks near the surface to warm the water. The depth of these rocks must be enough so that one can drill down to them. The type of rock also plays a role because it must be easy to drill through.
• A geothermal site is prone to running out of steam, meaning that the water is not heated at a high enough temperature to generate enough steam pressure. This makes the site useless, in terms of energy production, for decades.
• Drilling holes underground may release hazardous gases and minerals from deep inside the Earth. It can be problematical to dispose of these subsidiary products in a safe manner.

Temperature is the physical property of a system which underlies the common notions of hot and cold; the material with the higher temperature is said to be hotter. ... A gas is one of the phases of matter. ... This article is about minerals in the geologic sense; for nutrient minerals see dietary mineral; for the band see Mineral (band). ...

Hydroelectric Energy

Main article: Hydroelectricity

In hydro energy, the gravitational descent of a river is compressed from a long run to a single location with a dam or a flume. This creates a location where concentrated pressure and flow can be used to turn turbines or water wheels, which drive a mechanical mill or an electric generator. An electric generator, when there is excess energy available, can be run backwards as a motor to pump water back up for later use. Hydroelectricity, or hydroelectric power, is a form of hydropower, (i. ... This article covers the physics of gravitation. ... For the Second World War frigate class, see River class frigate The Murray River in Australia A river is a large natural waterway. ... Scrivener Dam, Canberra Australia, was engineered to withstand a once-in-5000-years flood event A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment. ... The flume - is a waterwork with opened water-table, that leads water from diversion weir completely asside a natural flow. ... Pressure is the application of force to a surface, and the concentration of that force in a given area. ... FLOW is a J-Pop group. ... WWII era steam turbine used for ship propulsion. ... An overshot water wheel standing 42 feet high powers the Old Mill at Berry College in Rome, Georgia A water wheel (also waterwheel, Norse mill, Persian wheel or noria) is a hydropower system; a system for extracting power from a flow of water. ... The term mill, when used by itself, can refer to: Mill (factory) - a place of business for making articles of manufacture, e. ... Generator redirects here. ... A pump is a mechanical device used to move liquids or gases. ...

Pros

• Hydroelectric power stations can promptly increase to full capacity, unlike other types of power stations. This is because water can be accumulated above the dam and released to coincide with peaks in demand.
• Electricity can be generated constantly, because there are no outside forces, which affect the availability of water. This is in contrast to wind, solar or tidal power, all of which are far less reliable.
• Hydroelectric power produces no waste or pollution, and does not contribute to global warming.

The supply and demand model describes how prices vary as a result of a balance between product availability at each price (supply) and the desires of those with purchasing power at each price (demand). ... In physics, force is defined as the time derivative of momentum: F = dp/dt = d(m·v)/dt where F is the force (a vector quantity), p is the momentum, v is the velocity, and m is the mass. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Pollution is the release of harmful environmental contaminants, or the substances so released. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1856-2004 Mean temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is a term used to describe the increase over time of the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans. ...

Cons

• The construction of a dam can have a serious environmental impact on the surrounding areas. The amount and the quality of water downstream can be affected, which affects plant life both aquatic, and land-based. Because a river valley is being flooded, the delicate local habitat of many species is destroyed, while people living nearby may have to relocate their homes.
• Dams are expensive to build, making the start-up costs of a hydroelectric power station very high.
• Hydro electricity can only be used in areas, where there is a large supply of water.

The term aquatic refers to water and can be either a noun or an adjective. ... Land is sometimes used synonymously with country. ... Fljótsdalur in East-Iceland A valley is a landform, which can range from a few square miles (square kilometers) to hundreds or even thousands of square miles (square kilometers) in area. ... Look up Flood in Wiktionary, the free dictionary A flood (in Old English flod, a word common to Teutonic languages; compare German Flut, Dutch vloed from the same root as is seen in flow, float) is an overflow of water, an expanse of water submerging land, a deluge. ... In biology, a species is, loosely speaking, a group of related organisms that share a more or less distinctive form and are capable of interbreeding. ...

Nuclear Energy

Main article: Nuclear energy

Nuclear power stations work similar to fossil fuel power plants, except for the fact that the heat is produced by the reaction of uranium inside a nuclear reactor. The reactor uses uranium rods, which are split in the process of fission, releasing a large amount of energy. The process continues as a chain reaction with other nuclei takes place. The heat released heats water to create steam, which spins a turbine, producing electricity. See also Nuclear power for the commercial production of electricty from nuclear energy. ... A nuclear power plant in Cattenom, France. ... General Name, Symbol, Number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block ?, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic Atomic mass 238. ... Nuclear power station at Leibstadt, Switzerland. ... In geometry, a Rod is a 3-dimensional, solid (filled) cylinder. ... Sketch of induced nuclear fission, a neutron (n) strikes a uranium nucleus which splits into similar products (F. P.), and releases more neutrons to continue the process, and energy in the form of gamma and other radiation. ... Several things have been named Chain Reaction, after the chain reaction process best known in connection with nuclear fission: Chain Reaction, a film Chain Reaction, a 1990s record label Chain Reaction, a 1980s game show Chain Reaction, a 1970s band A Square Dance Call on the A1 List A Series... Plural: nuclei In chemistry and physics, the nucleus (atomic nucleus) is the collection of protons and neutrons in the center of an atom that carries the bulk of the atoms mass and positive charge. ... A red-hot iron rod cooling after being worked by a blacksmith. ... Water (from the Old English word wæter; c. ... In physical chemistry and in engineering, steam refers to vaporized water. ... WWII era steam turbine used for ship propulsion. ... Lightning strikes during a night-time thunderstorm. ...

Pros

• The process of nuclear fission allows for the production of tremendous amounts of energy from a small amount of fuel, a rod of uranium.
• The cost of making nuclear power is about the same as coal, which is considered very inexpensive.
• Nuclear power plants are heavily guarded with the nuclear reactor inside a reinforced containment building, and thus are relatively impervious to terrorist attack or adverse weather conditions.
• Nuclear power does not produce any air pollution or release carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere. Therefore, it does not contribute to global warming or acid rain.

Sketch of induced nuclear fission, a neutron (n) strikes a uranium nucleus which splits into similar products (F. P.), and releases more neutrons to continue the process, and energy in the form of gamma and other radiation. ... A nuclear power plant in Cattenom, France. ... A containment building, in its most common usage, is a steel or concrete structure enclosing a nuclear reactor. ... This power plant in New Mexico releases sulfur dioxide and particulate matter into the air. ... Carbon dioxide is an atmospheric gas composed of one carbon and two oxygen atoms. ... Sulfur dioxide (or Sulphur dioxide) has the chemical formula SO2. ... Atmosphere may refer to: a celestial body atmosphere, e. ... Global mean surface temperatures 1856-2004 Mean temperature anomalies during the period 1995 to 2004 with respect to the average temperatures from 1940 to 1980 Global warming is a term used to describe the increase over time of the average temperature of the Earths atmosphere and oceans. ... Acid rain is defined as rain with a pH of below 5. ...

Cons

• The waste produced from the nuclear fission of uranium is poisonous, and extremely radioactive, requiring constant and costly maintenance and monitoring at the storage sites. Moreover, the long-term disposal of the long-lived nuclear waste causes serious problems, since (unless the spent fuel is reprocessed) it takes about one hundred thousand years for the spent fuel to come back to the natural radioactivity of uranium.
• The operation of an uncontained nuclear reactor near human settlements can be catastrophic, as shown by the Chernobyl accident in the former Ukraine, where large areas of land were affected by nuclear fallout. Members of the public are hesitant about the safety of nuclear power.
• Building a nuclear power plant requires a huge investment, and the costs of safe disassembling after it becomes obsolete (called decommissioning) must be included into the budget.
• There can be connections between nuclear power and nuclear weapon proliferation, since both require large-scale uranium enrichment facilities.

The skull and crossbones symbol traditionally used to label a poisonous substance. ... Radioactive decay is the set of various processes by which unstable atomic nuclei (nuclides) emit subatomic particles. ... Maintenance see repair and maintenance Maintenance is a legal term of art that is used to describe child support and alimony (also called spousal support). ... Storage is the at least semi-permanent holding of an amount of something. ... A Russian fissile material storage facility Radioactive waste is waste material containing radioactive chemical elements which does not have a practical purpose. ... General Name, Symbol, Number uranium, U, 92 Chemical series actinides Group, Period, Block ?, 7, f Appearance silvery gray metallic Atomic mass 238. ... A containment building, in its most common usage, is a steel or concrete structure enclosing a nuclear reactor. ... Nuclear power station at Leibstadt, Switzerland. ... The nuclear power plant at Chernobyl. ... Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a nuclear explosion and is named from the fact that it falls out of the atmosphere in to which it is spread during the explosion. ... Public is of or pertaining to the people; belonging to the people; relating to, or affecting, a nation, state, or community; opposed to private; as, the public treasury, a road or lake. ... The mushroom cloud of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki, Japan, 1945, rose some 18 km (11 mi) above the epicenter. ... Enriched uranium is uranium whose uranium-235 content has been increased through the process of isotope separation. ...

Energy transportation

While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made possible by new technology, distribution technology continually evolves. The use of fuel cells in cars, for example, is an anticipated delivery technology. This section presents some of the more common delivery technologies that have been important to historic energy development. They all rely in some way on the energy sources listed in the previous section. Technology (Gr. ... This page deals with mathematical distributions. ... A fuel cell is an electrochemical device similar to a battery, but differing from the latter in that it is designed for continuous replenishment of the reactants consumed; i. ... Central African Republic Children At Risk Cordillera Administrative Region Cost Accrual Ratio Computer-assisted reporting Cumulative average return This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...

• Fuels

Shipping is a flexible delivery technology that is used in the whole range of energy development regimes from primitive to highly advanced. Currently, coal,petroleum and their derivatives are delivered by shipping via boat, rail, or road. Petroleum and natural gas may also be delivered via pipeline. Refined hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and LPG may also be delivered via aircraft.

• Electric grids

Electric Grid: towers and cables distribute power

Electricity grids are the networks used to transmit and distribute power from production source to end user, when the two may be hundreds of kilometres away. Sources include electrical generation plants such as a nuclear reactor, coal burning power plant, etc. A combination of sub-stations, transformers, towers, cables, and piping are used to maintain a constant flow of electricity.

Grids may suffer from transient blackouts and brownouts, often due to weather damage. During certain extreme space weather events solar wind can interfere with transmissions.

Grids also have a predefined carrying capacity or load that cannot safely be exceeded. When power requirements exceed what's available, failures are inevitable. To prevent problems, power is then rationed.

Industrialised countries such as Canada, the US, and Australia are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network.

In the week of 3 August 2003, the US set an all-time national record for electricity use of 90,000 gigawatts. CurrentEnergy provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for California, Texas, and the Northeast of the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of Queensland, Australia. This network's service provision and its administration is an ongoing issues for that states politicians.

Shipping is the transport of cargo between seaports by ships, typically large steel vessels powered by diesel engines or steam turbine plants. ... Coal is a fossil fuel extracted from the ground either by underground mining, open-pit mining or strip mining. ... Nodding donkey pumping an oil well near Sarnia, Ontario, 2001 Petroleum (from Latin petra – rock and oleum – oil), crude oil, sometimes colloquially called black gold, is a thick, dark brown or greenish flammable liquid, which exists in the upper strata of some areas of the Earths crust. ... Lobster boat A boat is a watercraft, usually smaller than most ships. ... Trains can travel at very high speed, are heavy, are unable to deviate from the track and require a great distance to stop. ... A road is a strip of land, smoothed or otherwise prepared to allow easier travel, connecting two or more destinations. ... Gasoline, as it is known in North America, or petrol, in many Commonwealth countries (sometimes also called motor spirit) is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. ... Liquified petroleum gas (also called liquefied petroleum gas, liquid petroleum gas, LPG, LP gas, or autogas) is a mixture of hydrocarbon gases used as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles, and increasingly replacing fluorocarbons as an aerosol propellant and a refrigerant to reduce damage to the ozone layer. ... An aircraft is any machine capable of atmospheric flight. ... Download high resolution version (582x800, 73 KB)Electrical Grid tower and cables PD File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Download high resolution version (582x800, 73 KB)Electrical Grid tower and cables PD File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... It has been suggested that networking be merged into this article or section. ... Transmission lines in Lund, Sweden Electric power transmission is one process in the delivery of electricity to consumers. ... Electricity distribution is the penultimate process in the delivery of electric power, the part between transmission and user purchase from an electricity retailer. ... The concept of power occurs in multiple areas. ... Nuclear power station at Leibstadt, Switzerland. ... A tower is a high structure, usually man-made. ... A cable is two or more wires bound together which may be bare or covered or insulated. ... The word pipe can refer to: The basic cylindrical pipe shape a tubular man-made channel, generally round in cross section, in steel or concrete for transporting or guiding a fluid substance see plumbing and pipeline transport used in construction as column, truss element or space frame in mechanical engineering... The term blackout in peacetime refers to a cessation of electrical energy through electric power transmission systems. ... A power outage is the loss of the electricity supply to an area. ... Space weather is the speed and density of the particles and solar wind currently being generated by the sun. ... A solar wind is a stream of charged particles (i. ... In ecology, carrying capacity is the measure of an environment, or habitat, to indefinitely sustain the population of a particular species in a steady-state population density. ... ... State nickname: The Golden State Other U.S. States Capital Sacramento Largest city Los Angeles Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger (R) Official languages English Area 410,000 km² (3rd)  - Land 404,298 km²  - Water 20,047 km² (4. ... Prior to 1821, Texas was part of the Spanish colony of New Spain. ... Motto: Audax at Fidelis (Bold but Faithful) Nickname: Sunshine State/Smart State Other Australian states and territories Capital Brisbane Government Governor Premier Const. ...

Energy storage

Main article: Energy storage

While most fuels can be stored, electricity in itself cannot. For that reason, many methods of energy storage have been developed, which transform electrical energy into other forms of energy. A method of energy storage may be chosen based on stability, ease of transport, ease of energy release, or ease of converting free energy from the natural form to the stable form. Energy storage is the storing of some form of energy that can be drawn upon at a later time to perform some useful operation. ...

• Chemical

Some natural forms of energy are found in stable chemical compounds such as fossil fuels. Most systems of chemical energy storage result from biological activity, which store energy in chemical bonds. Man-made forms of chemical energy storage include hydrogen fuel, batteries and explosives such as cordite and dynamite.

• Gravitational

Dams can be used to store energy, by using excess energy to pump water into the reservoir. When electrical energy is required, the process is reversed. The water then turns a turbine, generating electricity. Hydroelectric power is currently an important part of the world's energy supply, generating one-fifth of the world's electricity. :[1].

Another example of gravitational energy storage is the counter-weight on elevators.

• Electrical capacitance

Electrical energy may be stored in capacitors. These are often used to produce high intensity releases of energy (such as a camera's flash)

• Mechanical

• Pressure:

Energy may also be stored pressurised gases or alternatively in a vacuum. Compressed air, for example, may be used to operate vehicles and power tools. Large scale compressed air energy storage facilities are used to smooth out demands on electricity generation by providing energy during peak hours and storing energy during off-peak hours. Such systems save on expensive generating capacity since it only needs to meet average consumption rather than peak consumption.

• Flywheels and springs

Energy can also be stored in mechanical systems such as springs or flywheels. Flywheel energy storage is currently being used for uninterruptible power supplies.

Energy consumption from 1989 to 1999

Energy production from 1989 to 1999

Coal rail cars in Ashtabula, Ohio Fossil fuels, also known as mineral fuels, are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ... Main articles: Life All organisms (viruses not included) consist of cells, which in turn, are based on a common carbon-based biochemistry. ... General Name, Symbol, Number hydrogen, H, 1 Chemical series nonmetals Group, Period, Block 1, 1, s Appearance colorless Atomic mass 1. ... Four double-A batteries In science and technology, a battery is a device that stores energy and makes it available in an electrical form. ... This article is concerned solely with chemical explosives. ... Cordite is a smokeless propellent explosive made from two high explosives nitrocellulose mixed with nitroglycerin, and commonly used in firearms since the early 20th Century. ... Dynamite is an explosive based on the explosive potential of nitroglycerin using diatomaceous earth (Kieselguhr) as an absorbent. ... Scrivener Dam, Canberra Australia, was engineered to withstand a once-in-5000-years flood event A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or retards the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundment. ... WWII era steam turbine used for ship propulsion. ... Hydroelectric dam diagram The waters of Llyn Stwlan, the upper reservoir of the Ffestiniog Pumped-Storage Scheme in north Wales, can just be glimpsed on the right. ... Weight is the interaction of matter with a gravitational field. ... A modern elevator has buttons to allow passengers to select the desired floor. ... Various types of capacitors A capacitor (occasionally referred to using the older term condenser) is a device that stores energy in the electric field created between a pair of conductors on which equal but opposite electric charges have been placed. ... Pressure is the application of force to a surface, and the concentration of that force in a given area. ... This article is about absence of matter. ... Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES) refers to the compression of air during periods of low energy demand, for use in meeting periods of higher demand. ... Springs A spring is a flexible elastic object used to store mechanical energy. ... A recent innovation in electrical energy storage is the use of flywheel energy storage, also called flywheel power storage. ... An uninterruptible power supply, or UPS, is a device or system that maintains a continuous supply of electric power to certain essential equipment that must not be shut down unexpectedly. ...  ©  This image is copyrighted. ...  ©  This image is copyrighted. ...  ©  This image is copyrighted. ...  ©  This image is copyrighted. ...

Historic energy development schemes

Human societies have relied and currently rely on various energy development schemes. Schemes that are most powerful are considered in the energy development field to be more advanced in that they contribute better to human comfort and freedom. As humans and societies move from more primitive energy development schemes to more advanced ones, it is typically said from an energy development point of view that they are advancing because the energy limits on comfort and freedom are shrinking. Sources and technologies in this section are presented in order of increasing energy development.

Future energy development

Main article: Future energy development

Extrapolations from current knowledge to future energy development offer a choice of energy futures. Some predictions parallel the Malthusian catastrophe hypothesis. Numerous are complex models based scenarios as pioneered by Limits to Growth. Modelling approaches offer ways to analyse diverse strategies, and hopefully find a road to rapid and sustainable development of humanity. Short term energy crises are also a concern of energy development. Energy development is the ongoing effort to provide abundant and accessible energy, through knowledge, skills and constructions. ... Energy development is the ongoing effort to provide abundant and accessible energy, through knowledge, skills and constructions. ... A Malthusian catastrophe, sometimes known as a Malthusian check, is a return to subsistence-level conditions as a result of agricultural (or, in later formulations, economic) production being eventually outstripped by growth in population. ... A model is a substitute for or an abstraction of a specific thing. ... A Scenario (from the Italian, that which is pinned to the scenery) is a brief description of an event. ... Limits to Growth was a 1972 book modeling the consequences of a rapidly growing global population, commissioned by the Club of Rome. ... Model may refer to more than one thing : For models in society, art, fashion, and cosmetics, see; role model model (person) supermodel figure drawing modeling section In science and technology, a model (abstract) is understood as an abstract or theoretical representation of a phenomenon,see; geologic modeling model (economics) model... A strategy is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal. ... Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, according to Our Common Future, a 1987 report from the UN. One of the factors which sustainable development must overcome is environmental degradation. ... An energy crisis is any great shortfall (or price rise) in the supply of energy to an economy. ...

Existing technologies for new energy sources, such as new renewable energy technologies, nuclear fission and fusion are promising, but need sustained research and development, including consideration of possible harmful side effects. // Renewable energy (sources) or RES capture their energy from existing flows of energy, from on-going natural processes, such as sunshine, wind, flowing water, biological processes, and geothermal heat flows. ... Sketch of induced nuclear fission, a neutron (n) strikes a uranium nucleus which splits into similar products (F. P.), and releases more neutrons to continue the process, and energy in the form of gamma and other radiation. ... The deuterium-tritium fusion reaction is considered the most promising for producing fusion power. ... Research is an in inactive, diligent and systematic process of inquiry in order to discover, interpret or revise facts, events, behaviours, or theories, or to make practical applications with the help of such facts, laws or theories. ... Development has meaning in several contexts: I see you Claire Science Biological development of embryos in the context of developmental biology Child development or post-natal human development (pediatrics, etc) Software engineering, the methodology and process of development of computer software Technology development in industry, as in Software development The... A side-effect is any effect other than an intended primary effect. ...

See also

• Nuclear power phase-out
• Nuclear energy policy
• Future energy development
• List of environment topics

A nuclear power plant at Grafenrheinfeld, Germany. ... This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Energy development is the ongoing effort to provide abundant and accessible energy, through knowledge, skills and constructions. ... This page aims to list articles related to the environment. ...

References

• S. Bilgen and K. Kaygusuz, Renewable Energy for a Clean and Sustainable Future, Energy Sources 26, 1119 (2004).
• Energy analysis of Power Systems, UIC Nuclear Issues Briefing Paper 57 (2004).