The Hephthalites, also known as White Huns, were an Indo-European and quite possibly an Eastern Iranian nomadic people who ruled across western China, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwest India in the fourth through sixth centuries AD. The term Hephthalite derives from Greek, supposedly a rendering of Hayathelite (from the term Haital = "Big/Powerful" in the dialect of Bukhara, but might also mean "seven"), the name used by Persian writers to refer to a 6th century empire on the northern and eastern periphery of their land. As a group they appear to be distinct from the Huns who ravaged Europe in the fourth century AD. Map of Central Asia showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia located as a region of the world Central Asia (Russian: Средняя Азия/Srednyaya Azia for Middle Asia or Центральная Азия/Tsentralnaya Azia for Central Asia; in Turkic languages Orta Asya; in Persian آسياى مرکزی; (Urdu: وسطى ايشيا)Wasti Asia; Standard Mandarin Chinese... South Asia is a southern geopolitical region of the Asian continent comprising territories on and in proximity to the Indian subcontinent. ... Proto-Indo-European Indo-European studies Indo-European is originally a linguistic term, referring to the Indo-European language family. ... Northeastern Iranian languages Southeastern Iranian languages See also: List of Iranian languages, Western Iranian languages. ... Kazakh nomads in the steppes of the Russian Empire, ca. ... Map of Central Asia showing three sets of possible boundaries for the region Central Asia located as a region of the world Central Asia (Russian: Средняя Азия/Srednyaya Azia for Middle Asia or Центральная Азия/Tsentralnaya Azia for Central Asia; in Turkic languages Orta Asya; in Persian آسياى مرکزی; (Urdu: وسطى ايشيا)Wasti Asia; Standard Mandarin Chinese... Bukhara (Bokhara in XIX century English, Buxoro or Бухоро in Uzbek (the Cyrillic alphabet was officially phased out for Uzbek after independence); بُخارا /Bukhârâ/ in Persian, Buhe/Puhe Tang Chinese, Бухара in Russian; also Boxara in Tatar) is the fifth-largest city in Uzbekistan, and capital of the Bukhara region (Bukhoro Wiloyati). ... Persian is an Indo-European language spoken in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Bahrain, Iraq, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia, Southern Russia, neighboring countries, and elsewhere. ... This Buddhist stela from China, Northern Wei period, was built in the early 6th century. ... The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes, most likely of diverse origin with a Turkic-speaking aristocracy, who appeared in Europe in the 4th century, the most famous being Attila the Hun. ... (3rd century - 4th century - 5th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 4th century was that century which lasted from 301 to 400. ...

Name

In China, they were known as Yanda (厌哒 or 嚈噠), also written Yedaiyiliduo/Yeda/Yeoptal, but are documented as having called themselves Hua or Huer (滑), chroniclers recognising that the Chinese Yoptal terms actually came from the name of the Hua leaders. Peoples with similar ethnicons had been present in Central Eurasia for centuries. The Chinese classic Liang Zhigongtu describes them as originating in the Hua (state). Yanda has been given various latinised renderings such as "Yeda", although the Korean pronunciation "Yeoptal" 엽달 is much more recognisable and is certainly a much more archaic form. The later name Hephthal, which some sources indicate originally applied to one of the 5 Yuezhi families from Kushan, is supposed to have been a name derived from their ruling élite. Liang chih-kung-tu (梁 職貢圖) (alternative transliterations need to be given). ... Hangul is the native alphabet used to write the Korean language (as opposed to the Hanja system borrowed from China). ... The migrations of the Yuezhi through Central Asia, from around 176 to 30 BCE. Yuezhi (Chinese:月氏, also 月支, Wade-Giles: Yüeh-Chih) or Da Yuezhi (Chinese:大月氏, also 大月支, Great Yuezhi) is the Chinese name for an ancient Central Asian people. ... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ...

Procopius called them "White Huns" while Simokattes calls them Uar (reminiscent of their own self-designation) and identifies them as the "real" Avars of the east and the true political force behind what he calls the "pseudo" Avars who eventually settled down in Transylvania. Procopius (in Greek Προκόπιος, c. ... According to Theophylaktos Simokattes, Uar (滑 Hua), along with the Hunnoi (混夷 Gun-i), are the names associated with the two biggest tribes of Procopiuss White Huns. They were called Varkhon or Varkunites (OuarKhonitai) by Menander Protector, after whom the Balkan mountains were named (by sheer coincidence the mythical home of... The Eurasian Avars were a nomadic people of Eurasia, supposedly of proto-Mongolian Turkic stock, who migrated from eastern Asia into central and eastern Europe in the 6th century. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

Different spellings include Ephthalite, Epthalite, Ephtalite, Eptalite, Hepthalite, Hephtalite, and Heptalite.

India knew the Hephthalites by the Sanskrit name Hūna (svetahuna i.e. White Huns)(perhaps used originally to refer to the Xiyonites?). It has been said that their legendary ancestor was Afrasiabus. Armenian sources also mention a White Hun origin for the Parthian Arsaces. According to Simokattes, Alchoni were also a part of their composition, having united under the Yoptal with the "vulturous" Uar around AD 460. The Sanskrit language ( , ) is a classical language of India, a liturgical language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, and one of the 22 official languages of India. ... The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes, most likely of diverse origin with a Turkic-speaking aristocracy, who appeared in Europe in the 4th century, the most famous being Attila the Hun. ... Afrasiab, near Samarkand, Uzbekistan is both a historical city and its legendary founder. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Reproduction of a coin of Arsaces Arsaces is a Persian name, which occurs on a Persian seal, where it is written in cuneiform characters. ... Alchon Huns refers to a tribe which minted coins in Bactria in the 5th & 6th centuries. ... According to Theophylaktos Simokattes, Uar (滑 Hua), along with the Hunnoi (混夷 Gun-i), are the names associated with the two biggest tribes of Procopiuss White Huns. They were called Varkhon or Varkunites (OuarKhonitai) by Menander Protector, after whom the Balkan mountains were named (by sheer coincidence the mythical home of...

Expansion

The Hephthalite empire came into existence for the first time in 460 AD, when the Khwarezmian Uar and the eastern Choni came into a confederation and the Yuezhi/Kushan Haital became their ruling elite. Throughout the 5th century, it was the Huer who managed to succeed to the Central Eurasian Hun heritage in a campaign which spread from the Tian Shan to the Carpathians. After the failure of Xiong's Zhou County (352) the influence of the Huer Dragon Tribe ^{[citations needed]} started to expand. The influence of the northern deer-people (Elunchun) retreated north up the Yenisei River ^{[citations needed]} as the Huer chased a western portion of the Choni into Uzbekistan ^{[citations needed]} (Late 4th century Alchoni), while the eastern branch founded the Xiong's last eastern dynasty Tiefu Xia ^{[citations needed]} (407-431). By 460 the Huer had taken over much of Central Eurasia from Xinjiang to the Volga River, though very little is known about the area from the late 5th to early 6th centuries. Khwarezmid Empire (1190-1220) Khwarezm (Uzbek: Xorazm, Russian: Хорезм Khorezm, Persian: خوارزم Khwārazm, Arabic: خوارزم Khwārizm, Chinese: 花剌子模 Hualazimo) was a state centred on the Amu Darya river delta of the former Aral Sea, in modern Uzbekistan, extending across the Ust-Urt plateau and possibly as far west as the eastern shores... According to Theophylaktos Simokattes, Uar (滑 Hua), along with the Hunnoi (混夷 Gun-i), are the names associated with the two biggest tribes of Procopiuss White Huns. They were called Varkhon or Varkunites (OuarKhonitai) by Menander Protector, after whom the Balkan mountains were named (by sheer coincidence the mythical home of... The migrations of the Yuezhi through Central Asia, from around 176 to 30 BCE. Yuezhi (Chinese:月氏, also 月支, Wade-Giles: Yüeh-Chih) or Da Yuezhi (Chinese:大月氏, also 大月支, Great Yuezhi) is the Chinese name for an ancient Central Asian people. ... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... The Tian Shan (Chinese: 天山; Pinyin: Tiān Shān; celestial mountains) mountain range is located in Central Asia, in the border region of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and the Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region of western China. ... The Carpathian Convention is a framework type convention pursuing a comprehensive policy and cooperating in the protection and sustainable development of the Carpathians. ... The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes, most likely of diverse origin with a Turkic-speaking aristocracy, who appeared in Europe in the 4th century, the most famous being Attila the Hun. ... Events Liberius becomes Pope Earliest sighting of a supernova occurs in China Births Deaths Pope Julius I. Bishop Nicholas of Myra, Roman priest (or 345). ... The Yenisei (Енисе́й) is the greatest river system flowing to the Arctic Ocean, and the fifth longest river in the world. ... Many historians consider the Huns (meaning person in Mongolian language) the first Turkic people mentioned in European history. ... Alchon Huns refers to a tribe which minted coins in Bactria in the 5th & 6th centuries. ... The Huns were a confederation of Eurasian tribes, most likely of diverse origin with a Turkic-speaking aristocracy, who appeared in Europe in the 4th century, the most famous being Attila the Hun. ... The Tiefu (Simplified Chinese character: 铁弗, Traditional Chinese character: 鐵弗, pinyin: TiÄ›fú) was a pre-state Xiongnu tribe during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. ... // Events Gunderic becomes king of the Vandals and the Alans after the death of his father Godgisel Gratianus of Britain is assassinated and Constantine III takes his place at the head of the mutinous Roman garrison in Britain. ... Events June - Council of Ephesus: Nestorianism is rejected, the Nicene creed is declared to be complete. ... Events March 27 night - Swabians invade the Gallic city of Lugo. ... Xinjiang (Uyghur: (Shinjang); Chinese: æ–°ç–†; Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Hsin1-chiang1; Postal Pinyin: Sinkiang), full name Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (Uyghur: شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى (Shinjang Uyghur Aptonom Rayoni); Simplified Chinese: 新疆维吾尔自治区; Traditional Chinese: 新疆維吾爾自治區; Pinyin: XÄ«njiāng Wéiwúěr ZìzhìqÅ«), is an autonomous region of the Peoples Republic of China. ... The Volga river in Western Russia, Europes longest river, with a length of 3,690 km (2,293 miles), provides the core of the largest river system in Europe. ...

Some sources ^{[citation needed]} indicate that one branch of the Juan Juan was called Uar or Var(?), and they were placed at the head of the Uyghurs after Juan Juan subjugation in 460 ^{[citations needed]}. If the "Uar" people in question are the same as the Hua, then they must have joined the Juan Juan in 460 after pushing the Choni into Uzbekistan and taking over Uyghuristan, then heading for Europe, leaving the Juan Juan controlled area to Hephthalite sovereignty before the 541-545 power shift. Juan Juan (wg), Ruanruan (py), Ru Ru (py) or Rouran 柔然 (py) was the name of a confederacy of nomadic tribes on the northern borders of China proper from late 4th century until late 6th century. ... According to Theophylaktos Simokattes, Uar (滑 Hua), along with the Hunnoi (混夷 Gun-i), are the names associated with the two biggest tribes of Procopiuss White Huns. They were called Varkhon or Varkunites (OuarKhonitai) by Menander Protector, after whom the Balkan mountains were named (by sheer coincidence the mythical home of... The Uyghur (Uyghur: ئۇيغۇر; Uighur Simplified Chinese: 维吾尔; Traditional Chinese: 維吾爾; Pinyin: Wéiwúěr; Turkish: Uygur) are a Turkic people, forming one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the Peoples Republic of China. ... Juan Juan (wg), Ruanruan (py), Ru Ru (py) or Rouran 柔然 (py) was the name of a confederacy of nomadic tribes on the northern borders of China proper from late 4th century until late 6th century. ... Juan Juan (wg), Ruanruan (py), Ru Ru (py) or Rouran 柔然 (py) was the name of a confederacy of nomadic tribes on the northern borders of China proper from late 4th century until late 6th century. ... Many historians consider the Huns (meaning person in Mongolian language) the first Turkic people mentioned in European history. ... Juan Juan (wg), Ruanruan (py), Ru Ru (py) or Rouran 柔然 (py) was the name of a confederacy of nomadic tribes on the northern borders of China proper from late 4th century until late 6th century. ... Events January 1 - Flavius Basilius Junior appointed as consul in Constantinople, the last person to hold this office January 2 - Earthquake strikes Laodicea. ... Events The Ostrogoths besiegeRome. ...

Chinese sources mention a "king" called Yedaiyiliduo 厌带夷栗陁 (perhaps rather the name of the dynasty than a single man) from 516, indicating the Hephthalite family had come to rule them in Xinjiang by this time. Sometime during Ye-Tai-Yi-Li-Tuo's reign (507-531), those Huer and Alchoni ^{[citations needed]} tribes who had become one unit under his direct rule sought to usurp control in Xinjiang from the Juan Juan. From this time on they came to be called Hephthalites, but meanwhile the rest of the Huer and Alchoni under Sarosios's father strengthened their position in Khwarezmia to conquer the dregs of Attila's Hunnic empire in the west ^{[citations needed]}. Events Council of Tarragona Sigismund becomes king of Burgundy. ... Xinjiang (Uyghur: (Shinjang); Chinese: æ–°ç–†; Pinyin: ; Wade-Giles: Hsin1-chiang1; Postal Pinyin: Sinkiang), full name Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (Uyghur: شىنجاڭ ئۇيغۇر ئاپتونوم رايونى (Shinjang Uyghur Aptonom Rayoni); Simplified Chinese: 新疆维吾尔自治区; Traditional Chinese: 新疆維吾爾自治區; Pinyin: XÄ«njiāng Wéiwúěr ZìzhìqÅ«), is an autonomous region of the Peoples Republic of China. ... Events End of the reign of Northern Wei Chang Guang Wang, ruler of the Chinese Northern Wei Dynasty. ... Alchon Huns refers to a tribe which minted coins in Bactria in the 5th & 6th centuries. ... Juan Juan (wg), Ruanruan (py), Ru Ru (py) or Rouran 柔然 (py) was the name of a confederacy of nomadic tribes on the northern borders of China proper from late 4th century until late 6th century. ... Alchon Huns refers to a tribe which minted coins in Bactria in the 5th & 6th centuries. ... Khwarezmia (also with various alternate spellings, including Chorasmia and Khorezm) was a state located on what was then the coast of the Aral Sea, including modern Karakalpakstan across the Ust-Urt plateau and perhaps extending to as far west as the eastern shores of the North Caspian Sea. ... For other uses, see Attila (disambiguation). ...

The Eastern Huer or Hephthalite ^{[citations needed]} control of Uyghuristan was achieved between 541 and 545, during the reign of Yedaiyiliduo's successor Toramana II , which is why some scholars say Avar rule began in the area from this time. After Toramana II, the Hephthalite seat of power was relocated to the Punjab region . Though interrupted in history and now unrealized as a modern nation-state, Uyghuristan (also Uyghurstan, Uighuristan, Uighurstan, Uyguristan, Uygurstan, Uiguristan, Uigurstan) is the political aspiration of the Uyghur people, the largest indigenous population of East Turkestan, which is now an administrative unit of the Peoples Republic of China. ... The Eurasian Avars were a nomadic people of Eurasia, supposedly of proto-Mongolian Turkic stock, who migrated from eastern Asia into central and eastern Europe in the 6th century. ... Punjab, 1903 Punjab Province, 1909 Punjab (meaning: Land of five Rivers (c. ...

References to eastern "Avars" in control of Uyghuristan from 541-565 concern them. This was during the reign of the Hephthal Toramana II, though they had a presence in Xinjiang under his predecessor Yedaiyiliduo (507-531) ^{[citations needed]}, even during the Juan Juan rule there (460-545). It was apparently during the reign of Yedaiyiliduo ^{[citations needed]} that there was a split resulting in the western portions of Huer and Alchoni relocating their interests in the Volga region of Europe as the Avars ^{[citations needed]}. The Eurasian Avars were a nomadic people of Eurasia, supposedly of proto-Mongolian Turkic stock, who migrated from eastern Asia into central and eastern Europe in the 6th century. ... Events January 22 - Eutychius is deposed as Patriarch of Constantinople by John Scholasticus. ... Juan Juan (wg), Ruanruan (py), Ru Ru (py) or Rouran 柔然 (py) was the name of a confederacy of nomadic tribes on the northern borders of China proper from late 4th century until late 6th century. ... According to Theophylaktos Simokattes, Uar (滑 Hua), along with the Hunnoi (混夷 Gun-i), are the names associated with the two biggest tribes of Procopiuss White Huns. They were called Varkhon or Varkunites (OuarKhonitai) by Menander Protector, after whom the Balkan mountains were named (by sheer coincidence the mythical home of... Alchon Huns refers to a tribe which minted coins in Bactria in the 5th & 6th centuries. ...

Hephthalites in South Asia

Billon drachm of the Indo-Hephthalite King Napki Malka (Afghanistan/ Gandhara, c. 475-576).

Main article: Hunas

The Hephthalites, or Huna as they were known in India, established themselves in Afghanistan and NWFP in present day Pakistan by the first half of the fifth century, with their capital at Bamiyan. Billon drachm of the Hephthalite King Napki Malka (c. ... Billon drachm of the Hephthalite King Napki Malka (c. ... Billon is an alloy of a precious metal (most commonly silver, but also gold) with a high base metal content (such as copper). ... Drachma, pl. ... Billon drachm of the Hephthalite King Napki Malka (Afghanistan/ Gandhara, c. ... Gandhāra (also Ghandara, Ghandahra, Chandahara, and Persian Gandara) is the name of an ancient Mahajanapada in eastern Afghanistan and the north-western province of Pakistan. ... See also 475 (number) Events Orestes forces western Roman emperor Julius Nepos to flee and declares his son Romulus Augustus to be emperor. ... Events Births Deaths Categories: 576 ... Billon drachm of the Hephthalite King Napki Malka (Afghanistan/ Gandhara, c. ... North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) is geographically the smallest of the four provinces of Pakistan. ... Bamiyan province is one of the thirty_four provinces of Afghanistan. ...

The Gupta emperor Skandagupta repelled a Hūna invasion in 455, but the Hephthalites continued to pressure India's northwest frontier (present day Pakistan), and broke through into northern India by the end of the fifth century, hastening the disintegration of the Gupta empire. They made their capital at the city of Sakala (modern day Sialkot) under their Emperor Mihirakula (or MehrGul meaning sunflower). Skandagupta was a ruler of northern India under the Gupta dynasty. ... Events June 2 - Gaiseric leads the Vandals into Rome and plunder the city for two weeks. ... Silver coin of the Gupta King Kumara Gupta I (414-455 CE). ... Sialkot (Urdu: سیالکوٹ ) is a city in the north of Pakistan situated under the feet of the snow-covered peaks of Kashmir and near the Chenab river. ...

After the end of the sixth century little is recorded in India about the Hephthalites, and what happened to them is unclear; some historians surmise that the remaining Hephthalites were assimilated into northern India's population.

Origin Theories

K. Enoki believed them to be an Iranian group. Former soviet scholar and an expert on Afghan history Yu V. Gankovsky believes them to be an eastern Iranian group akin to the Scytho-Sarmatians and deems the Pashtun people to have significant elements of the Hephthalites, "My opinion is that the formation of the union of largely East-Iranian tribes which became the initial ethnic stratum of the Pashtun ethnogenesis dates from the middle of the first millennium AD and is connected with the dissolution of the Epthalite (White Huns) confederacy. In the areas north of the Hindu Kush some of the tribes of this confederacy participated in the formation of the nationalities who inhabit Middle Asia today, and, among other tribes, in the formation of the Turkmen and Uzbek nationalities. This is attested, among other things, in the records of genonimy which indicate that among the Turkmen and Uzbeks (as well as among the Lokai) there occurs the ethnonym Abdal descending from the name of an Epthalite tribal union (Abdals, Abdel). South of the Hindu Kush, another part of the Epthalite tribes lost their privileged status as the military stronghold of the ruling dynasty and was ousted into the thinly peopled areas of the Sulaiman mountains, areas where there were not enough water supplies and grazing grounds. There they became a tribal union which formed the basis of the Pashtun ethnogenesis." The surname Abdal figures quite prominently in Pashtun history under Ahmed Shah Abdali. The Pashtuns (also Pushtun, Pakhtun, ethnic Afghan, or Pathan) are an ethno-linguistic group consisting mainly of eastern Iranian stock living primarily in eastern and southern Afghanistan, and the North West Frontier Province, Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan. ... The Pashtuns (also Pushtun, Pakhtun, ethnic Afghan, or Pathan) are an ethno-linguistic group consisting mainly of eastern Iranian stock living primarily in eastern and southern Afghanistan, and the North West Frontier Province, Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Baluchistan provinces of Pakistan. ... Ahmad Shah Durrani Ahmad Shah Abdali (c. ...

Gankovsky continues: "Of the contribution of the Epthalites (White Huns) to the ethnogenesis of the Pashtuns we find evidence in the ethnonym of the largest of the Pashtun tribe unions, the Abdali (Durrani after 1747) associated with the ethnic name of the Epthalites -- Abdal. The Siah-posh, called all Pashtuns by a general name of Abdal still at sing of the 19th century (The People of Pakistan (Moscow, 1971)."[1] Pashto the language of the Pashtuns is an eastern Iranian language as well. Pashto (پښتو; also known as Afghan, Pushto, Pashto, Pashtoe, Pashtu, and Pukhto) is the language spoken by the ethnic Afghan otherwise known as the Pashtun people who inhabit Afghanistan and the Western provinces of Pakistan. ...

Some of Hephthalite practices remind us of Khwarezmia, in which case they may have belonged to other speakers of Indo-European languages, perhaps the Tocharians. There were various theories about their origins documented by contemporary Chinese chroniclers as with Procopius. Khwarezmia (also with various alternate spellings, including Chorasmia and Khorezm) was a state located on what was then the coast of the Aral Sea, including modern Karakalpakstan across the Ust-Urt plateau and perhaps extending to as far west as the eastern shores of the North Caspian Sea. ... The Indo-European languages comprise a family of several hundred languages and dialects [1], including most of the major languages of Europe, as well as many in Southwest Asia, Central Asia and South Asia. ... The Tocharians were the easternmost speakers of an Indo-European language in antiquity, inhabiting the Tarim basin in what is now Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, northwestern Peoples Republic of China. ...

• They were related in some way to the Visha (Indo-Europeans known to the Chinese as the Yuezhi or Yüeh Chih),
• They were a branch of the Kao-ch`e,
• They were descendants of the general Pahua,
• They were descendants of Kang Chu
• Their origins cannot be made clear at all.

The migrations of the Yuezhi through Central Asia, from around 176 to 30 BCE. Yuezhi (Chinese:月氏, also 月支, Wade-Giles: Yüeh-Chih) or Da Yuezhi (Chinese:大月氏, also 大月支, Great Yuezhi) is the Chinese name for an ancient Central Asian people. ... The Sogdians were an ancient people of Central Asia, who inhabited the region known to the West as Sogdiana. ...

See also

• Indo-Greeks
• Indo-Scythians
• Indo-Parthians
• Kushan Empire
• Kashmir Smast

Maximum extent of Indo-Greek territory circa 175 BCE. The Indo-Greeks (or sometimes Greco-Indians) designate a series of Greek kings, who invaded and controlled parts of northwest and northern India from 180 BCE to around 10 BCE. They are the continuation of the Greco-Bactrian dynasty of Greek... Early anepigraphic coinage of the Indo-Scythians (c. ... Coin of Gondophares (20-50 AD), first king of the Indo-Parthians kingdom. ... Boundary of the Kushan empire, c. ... // Kashmir Smast, Northwest Frontier Province, Pakistan The Kashmir Smast caves are a series of natural limestone caves, artificially expanded from the Kushan to the Shahi periods, situated in the Babozai mountains in the Mardan Valley in Northern Pakistan. ...

References

Enoki, K. "The Liang shih-kung-t'u on the origin and migration of the Hua or Ephthalites," Journal of the Oriental Society of Australia 7:1-2 (December 1970):37-45

The Persian Bukhani Kate dictionary states the meaning of Haital to mean "big, powerful" in the dialect of Bukhara.

Liang Zhigongtu (梁 職貢圖) (Wade-Giles Liang chih-kung-tu). ...

External links

• The Ethnonym Apar in the Turkish Inscriptions of the VIII. Century and Armenian Manuscripts - Mehmet Tezcan (pdf)
• Hephthalite coins
• Hephthalite History and Coins of the Kashmir Smast Kingdom- Waleed Ziad
• The Hephthalites of Central Asia - by Richard Heli (long article with a timeline)
• The Hephthalites Article archived from the University of Washington's Silk Road exhibition - has a slightly adapted form of the Richard Heli timeline.