This article is part of the series on: Image File history File links Rmn-military-header. ... Military of ancient Rome (portal) 800 BC – AD 476 For the military of the East Roman Empire after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, see Byzantine military. ...

Structural history

Roman army (unit types and ranks, legions, auxiliaries, generals)

Roman navy (fleets, admirals)

Campaign history

Lists of wars and battles

Decorations and punishments

Technological history

Military engineering (castra, siege engines, arches, roads)

Personal equipment

Political history

Strategy and tactics

Infantry tactics

Frontiers and fortifications (limes, Hadrian's Wall)

An equestrian (Latin eques, plural equites - also known as a vir egregius, lit. "excellent man" from the 2nd century AD onwards) was a member of one of the two upper social classes in the Roman Republic and early Roman Empire. This social class is often translated as "knight" or "chevalier" (French). However, this translation is not literal, since medieval knights relied on their martial skills, the physical power of their horse and armour to support their position, while the connection of Roman equestrians to horses had become more symbolic even in the early days of the Republic. The social position of medieval knights and Roman equestrians, however, was essentially the same. Roman equivalent to Medieval nobility, the Roman tax farming system shared many similarities with medieval feudalism without actually being identical, due to inherent differences in the social structure and the level of central government. The branches of the Roman military at the highest level were the Roman army and the Roman navy. ... The Roman army was a set of land-based military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military. ... This is a list of both unit types and ranks of the Roman army from the Roman Republic to the fall of the Roman Empire. ... This is a list of Roman legions, including key facts about each legion. ... Auxiliaries (from Latin: auxilia = supports) formed the standing non-citizen corps of the Roman army of the Principate (30 BC - 284 AD), alongside the citizen legions. ... // Manius Acilius Glabrio -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 191 BC) -- Manius Acilius Glabrio (consul 91) -- Titus Aebutius Helva -- Aegidius -- Lucius Aemilius Barbula -- Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir) -- Lucius Aemilius Paulus Macedonicus -- Marcus Aemilius Scaurus (praetor 56 BC) -- Flavius Aëtius -- Lucius Afranius (consul) -- Sextus Calpurnius Agricola -- Gnaeus Julius Agricola -- Flavius Antoninus -- Marcus... The Roman Navy (Latin: Classis, lit. ... The Roman Navy (Latin: Classis, lit. ... The history of ancient Rome—originally a city-state of Italy, and later an empire covering much of Eurasia and North Africa from the ninth century BC to the fifth century AD—was often closely entwined with its military history. ... The following is a List of Roman wars fought by the ancient Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire, organized by date. ... The following is a List of Roman battles (fought by the Roman Kingdom, the Roman Republic, and the Roman Empire), organized by date. ... As with most other military forces the Roman military adopted a carrot and stick approach to military, with an extensive list of decorations for military gallantry and likewise a range of punishments for military transgressions. ... The technology history of the Roman military covers the development of and application of technologies for use in the armies and navies of Rome from the Roman Republic to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. ... Roman military engineering is a type of Roman engineering carried out by the Roman Army - almost exclusively by the Roman legions for the furthering of military objectives. ... Basic ideal plan of a Roman castrum. ... Roman siege engines were, for the most part, adapted from Hellenistic siege technology. ... List of ancient Roman triumphal arches (By modern country) // France Orange Reims: Porte de Mars Saint Rémy de Provence: Roman site of Glanum Saintes: Arch of Germanicus Greece Arch of Galerius, Thessaloniki Hadrians Arch, Athens Italy It has been suggested that List of Roman arches in Rome be... Not to be confused with Romans road. ... Roman military personal equipment was produced in large numbers to established patterns and used in an established way. ... Root directory at Military history of ancient Rome Romes military was always tightly keyed to its political system. ... The strategy of the Roman Military encompasses its grand strategy (the arrangements made by the state to implement its political goals through a selection of military goals, a process of diplomacy backed by threat of military action, and a dedication to the military of part of its production and resources... Roman infantry tactics refers to the theoretical and historical deployment, formation and maneuvers of the Roman infantry from the start of the Roman Republic to the fall of the Western Roman Empire. ... Map of all the territories once occupied by the Roman Empire, along with locations of limes Roman military borders and fortifications were part of a grand strategy of territorial defense in the Roman Empire. ... The limes Germanicus, 2nd century. ... Hadrians Wall is a stone and turf fortification built by the Roman Empire across the width of modern-day England. ... For other uses, see Latins and Latin (disambiguation). ... Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures. ... This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... For other uses, see Roman Empire (disambiguation). ... Knights Dueling, by Eugène Delacroix For other uses, see Knight (disambiguation) or Knights (disambiguation). ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times. ... Binomial name Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758 The horse (Equus caballus, sometimes seen as a subspecies of the Wild Horse, Equus ferus caballus) is a large odd-toed ungulate mammal, one of ten modern species of the genus Equus. ... For other uses, see Armour (disambiguation). ... Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ... Tax farming was originally a Roman practise whereby the burden of tax collection was removed from the Roman State to private individuals or groups. ... Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century), in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval European political system comprised of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the...

The equites were the Roman middle class between the upper class of patricians and the lower class of plebians. The distinguishing mark of the equestrian class was a gold ring (that of the patrician was of iron) and narrow black band on the tunic. This is an article about the privileged class in ancient Rome. ... In Ancient Rome, the plebs was the general body of Roman citizens, distinct from the privileged class of the patricians. ...

Regional origins

Reenactor dressed as a Roman military equestrian

Before the Middle Ages, most European armies were largely composed of infantry. Horsemen were used as advance scouts, raiding parties, troop escorts, and to outflank infantry lines. The majority of heavy fighting was done by infantry. Still, ancient armies required cavalry, and the horsemen usually belonged to the highest classes, as they were the only citizens able to afford horses. As a result, it was considered prestigious to own and ride a horse. Image File history File links Roman_cavalry_lg. ... Image File history File links Roman_cavalry_lg. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

Ancient Rome was no exception to this rule, although Insert non-formatted text here the horsemen received financial compensation to buy a horse (the equus publicus, horse bought by the commonwealth). Thus, originally, the equestrians were a military as well as a political group. It is said that king Servius Tullius divided the Roman nation into centuries, which were not only units of soldiers on the battlefield but also voting units in the so-called Centuriate Assembly. The Roman historian Livy offers a description of a complex system with 18 centuries of cavalry, 170 centuries of infantry, and 2 centuries of engineers. When the centuries came together to vote, the equites centuries cast their 18 votes first, followed by the 172 remaining centuries, and one additional vote for those who were too poor to serve in the army but still had a political vote. (Although the fact that the people were divided belongs to the age of kings, it is likely that these specific numbers date back to the fourth century BC.) Servius Tullius was the sixth legendary king of ancient Rome, and the second king of the Etruscan dynasty. ... Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honours Emperor Institutions and Law Other countries Atlas  Politics Portal      The Roman assemblies were the Comitia Calata, the Comitia Curiata, the Comitia Centuriata, and the Comitia Tributa. ... A portrait of Titus Livius made long after his death. ...

Republican developments

Detail of Roman sarcophagus, 2nd Century AD, National Museum of Rome, Italy

Beginning in the late third century BC and continuing into the second century BC, Rome increasingly relied upon its allies for its cavalry. As a result, the equestrian centuries slowly lost their military function. Elite soldiers of the Roman Republic retained the title Eques, but most knights did not typically fight on horseback. Over time the title simply became an indication of nobility. (4th century BC - 3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events The first two Punic Wars between Carthage and Rome over dominance in western Mediterranean Rome conquers Spain Great Wall of China begun Indian traders regularly visited Arabia Scythians occupy... (3rd century BC - 2nd century BC - 1st century BC - other centuries) (2nd millennium BC - 1st millennium BC - 1st millennium AD) Events BC 168 Battle of Pydna -- Macedonian phalanx defeated by Romans BC 148 Rome conquers Macedonia BC 146 Rome destroys Carthage in the Third Punic War BC 146 Rome conquers... This article is about the state which existed from the 6th century BC to the 1st century BC. For the state which existed in the 18th century, see Roman Republic (18th century). ... Nobility is a traditional hereditary status (see hereditary titles) that exists today in many countries (mainly present or former monarchies). ...

At the same time, the definition of the Roman upper class was changing. The equestrians had always been wealthy citizens, but words like knight and senator slowly became synonymous. The Senate became a body of former magistrates, and although other rich citizens could still be invited to join political discussions, the families that had produced magistrates often intermarried and eventually created a senatorial elite within the old, equestrian elite. The Roman Senate (Latin: Senatus) was the main governing council of both the Roman Republic, which started in 509 BC, and the Roman Empire. ...

It is probably to this period, the late third and early second century BC, that a distinction within the eighteen equestrian centuries belongs: six centuries were reserved for the senators and their sons, and they cast the first votes, while the other twelve centuries belonged to the equestrians. This must be a development from an age in which the military aspect of the centuries had become less important, because from a military point of view it makes no sense to concentrate the elite in six units. If they were destroyed, the state would lose its governing body.

Thus, in the second century BC, Rome evolved a dual elite. The senators, just as rich as the equestrians, came to monopolize the government by dominating the magistrate offices and started to act as if they were an "elite within the elite". Senators had to behave according to a strict code of conduct, and were forbidden commercial incomes. For the equestrian, this taboo was less rigid, and the equestrians often invested money in tax farming companies and marketing. Unlike Senators, equestrians were permitted to operate businesses. As a result, tensions arose between the elite of the magistrates and the elite of the bankers. After all, the equestrians wanted to make as much money as possible from their tax farming companies and were extorting the provinces, whereas the Senators governed the provinces and noticed that overtaxing caused rebellions. Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law The cursus honorum (Latin: course of honours) was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in both the Roman Republic and the early Empire. ...

In the late second century BC, a tribune named Gaius Sempronius Gracchus used the latent tensions within Rome's double elite in an effort to reform Roman society. Before Gracchus, the elite had always been able to overcome any opposition. Gracchus' strategy was to divide the elite by proposing to make the knights jurors in extortion trials. This would enable them to judge their own conduct in the provinces, much against the wishes of the Senators. From that point on, the Senators and equestrians existed as independent classes with different rights, obligations, and interests. Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Greek form tribounos) was a title shared by 2-3 elected magistracies and other governmental and/or (para)military offices of the Roman Republic and Empire. ... Gaius Sempronius Gracchus (Latin: C·SEMPRONIVS·TI·F·P·N·GRACCVS) (154 BC-121 BC) was a Roman politician of the 2nd century BC. He was the younger brother of Tiberius Gracchus and, like him, pursued a popular political agenda that eventually got him killed by the conservative faction of...

Still, in the age of the Roman civil wars, the senatorial and equestrian orders often collaborated. Control of the courts and financial management of the provinces were two fields in which they sometimes clashed, yet their interests often coincided. Equestrians and Senators were usually not proponents of social change or revolution. Besides, an equestrian who obtained a political office (e.g., the quaestorship) would become a Senator, whereas the son of a Senator who failed to obtain office remained an equestrian. Quaestores were elected officials of the Roman Republic who supervised the treasury and financial affairs of the state, its armies and its officers. ...

Reforms in the Empire

During the reign of the Emperor Augustus, the two orders were for the first time officially defined. One could become an equestrian when one had some 400,000 sesterces; a Senator needed a million. Of course one also needed to be registered in one of the six senatorial or twelve equestrian centuries, and the censor (usually the Emperor) wrote down the names of worthy people on a list to be added to each century. Ordinary Magistrates Extraordinary Magistrates Titles and Honors Emperor Politics and Law This article discusses the nature of the imperial dignity, and its dynastic development throughout the history of the Empire. ... For other persons named Octavian, see Octavian (disambiguation). ... The sestertius was an ancient Roman coin. ... Censor was the title of two magistrates of high rank in the Roman Republic. ...

The empire needed a bureaucracy, but no freeborn Roman would serve another man. As a result, freedmen became very important during the reigns of Claudius (41-54) and Nero (54-68). This was not an acceptable solution. These freedmen could become very influential and Senators did not appreciate it when a former slave had greater power than they had. From the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, who ruled in the year 69, on, equestrian procurators started to serve as heads of the great ministries of the Roman government. Though some primary sources credit the short reign of Vitellius, Vespasians predecessor, with the innovation, it was certainly under the auspices of the Flavian Dynasty that the practice flourished. The equestrians developed into a bureaucratic and practical elite. The Senators still occupied the representative offices and acted as governors in the major provinces, but the equestrians did the real work within the Empire. For other persons named Claudius, see Claudius (disambiguation). ... Events January 24 - Roman Emperor Gaius Caesar (Caligula), known for his eccentricity and cruel despotism, is assassinated by his disgruntled Praetorian Guards. ... This article is about the year 54. ... For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation). ... This article is about the year 54. ... Centuries: 1st century BCE - 1st century - 2nd century Decades: 10s 20s 30s 40s 50s - 60s - 70s 80s 90s 100s 110s Years: 63 64 65 66 67 - 68 - 69 70 71 72 73 Events June 9 - Roman Emperor Nero commits suicide. ... Imperator Caesar Vespasianus Augustus (born November 17, 9, died June 23, 79), known originally as Titus Flavius Vespasianus and usually referred to in English as Vespasian, was emperor of Rome from 69 to 79. ... For other uses, see 69 (disambiguation). ... A procurator is the incumbent of any of several current and historical political or legal offices. ... Aulus Vitellius (September 24, 15 – December 22, 69), also called Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus, was Roman Emperor from April 17, 69 to December 22 of the same year, one of the emperors in the Year of the Four Emperors (the others being Galba, Otho, and Vespasian). ...

Officially, the equestrians were the second tier of the elite. In the theaters and amphitheaters, they occupied ranks behind the Senators. This made the equestrians harmless and, consequently, suitable for important offices of state: a Senator who served as Praetorian Prefect or Prefect of Egypt might start to dream of making himself Emperor, so these offices were reserved for equestrians. In the late second century, the Emperor Commodus and his successor Septimius Severus increasingly relied upon the equestrian order. Legions, for example, received equestrians as commanders, and the newly conquered provinces of Mesopotamia were governed by equestrian prefects. Praetorian prefect (Latin Praefectus praetorio) was the constant title of a high office in the Roman state that changed fundamentally in nature. ... A prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: make in front, i. ... ( 1st century - 2nd century - 3rd century - other centuries) Events Roman Empire governed by the Five Good Emperors ( 96– 180) – Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius. ... Lucius Aurelius Commodus Antoninus (August 31, 161 – December 31, 192) was a Roman Emperor who ruled from 180 to 192 (also with Marcus Aurelius from 177 until 180). ... Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) (b. ... Legion redirects here. ... Mesopotamia was a cradle of civilization geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq. ...

Senatorial authors like Cassius Dio did not appreciate it, but it was inevitable. Strong tribes threatened the Roman frontiers, and it would have been irresponsible to hand over the command of the armies to senators. Cassius Dio Cocceianus (ca. ...