NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Erythropoietin

Erythropoietin (IPA pronunciation: [ɪˌɹɪθ.ɹoˈpo.ɪ.tɪn], alternative pronunciations: [ɪˌrɪθroʊˈpɔɪtn, əˌrɪθroʊ-, əˌriθroʊ-]) or EPO is a glycoprotein hormone that is a cytokine for erythrocyte (red blood cell) precursors in the bone marrow. Also called hematopoietin or hemopoietin, it is produced by the kidney, and is the hormone regulating red blood cell production. Erythropoietin is available as a therapeutic agent produced by recombinant DNA technology in mammalian cell culture. It is used in treating anemia resulting from chronic renal failure or from cancer chemotherapy. Its use is also believed to be common as a blood doping agent in endurance sports such as bicycle racing, triathlons and marathon running. Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1008x684, 81 KB) Erythropoietin Created with data set from Protein Data Bank and the free program Rasmol. ... Hugo is a masculine name. ... The Entrez logo The Entrez Global Query Cross-Database Search System allows access to databases at the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) website. ... The Mendelian Inheritance in Man project is a database that catalogues all the known diseases with a genetic component, and - when possible - links them to the relevant genes in the human genome. ... The National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) is part of the US National Library of Medicine (NLM), which is a branch of the US National Institutes of Health. ... Swiss-Prot is a curated biological database of protein sequences created in 1986 by Amos Bairoch during his PhD and developed by the Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics and the European Bioinformatics Institute. ... Short and long arms Chromosome. ... Chromosome 7 is one of the 23 pairs of chromosomes in humans. ... For information on how to read IPA transcriptions of English words see here. ... A glycoprotein is a macromolecule composed of a protein and a carbohydrate (an oligosaccharide). ... Norepinephrine A hormone (from Greek ÏŒÏÎ¼Î® - to set in motion) is a chemical messenger from one cell (or group of cells) to another. ... Cytokines is a group of proteinaceous signalling compounds that like hormones and neurotransmitters are used extensively for inter-cell communication. ... Human red blood cells Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and are the vertebrate bodys principal means of delivering oxygen to body tissues via the blood. ... Human red blood cells Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate bodys principal means of delivering oxygen from the lungs or gills to body tissues via the blood. ... Grays Anatomy illustration of cells in bone marrow. ... Recombinant DNA technology adds/replaces DNA in an organism resulting in the recipient organism containing exogenous DNA. Recombinant proteins are proteins that are produced by different genetically modified organisms following insertion of the relevant DNA into their genome. ... Epithelial cells in culture, stained for keratin (red) and DNA (green) Cell culture is the term applied when cells are grown in a synthetic environment. ... Anemia (AmE) or anaemia (BrE), from the Greek () meaning without blood, refers to a deficiency of red blood cells (RBCs) and/or hemoglobin. ... Cancer is a class of diseases or disorders characterized by uncontrolled division of cells and the ability of these cells to spread, either by direct growth into adjacent tissue through invasion, or by implantation into distant sites by metastasis (where cancer cells are transported through the bloodstream or lymphatic system). ... Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ... Blood doping is the practice of illicitly boosting the number of red blood cells (RBCs) in the circulation in order to enhance athletic performance. ... Bicycle racing encompasses many forms in which bicycles are used for competition. ... A triathlon is a Greek word that refers to an athletic event made up of three contests. ... Modern day marathon runners The word marathon refers to a long-distance road running event of 42. ...

Discovery and biological role

The existence of a humoral factor regulating red blood cell production was first postulated in 1906 based on transfusion experiments in rabbits. In 1950, the still unidentified erythropoietic factor was found to be stimulated in rats breathing a low-oxygen atmosphere, thus establishing the elements of its biological regulation. In the 1960s its source was identified as the kidneys. Human EPO was first purified from human urine by T. Miyake, C. K. Kung and E. Goldwasser at the University of Chicago in 1977. Limited quantitites of the native human protein were used experimentally to treat patients with anemia. Human red blood cells Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate bodys principal means of delivering oxygen from the lungs or gills to body tissues via the blood. ... 1906 (MCMVI) was a common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar). ... 1950 (MCML) was a common year starting on Sunday (link will take you to calendar). ... Erythropoiesis is the process by which red blood cells (erythrocytes) are produced. ... It has been suggested that Renal anomalies and Renal plasma threshold be merged into this article or section. ... The University of Chicago is a private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. ... For the album by Ash, see 1977 (album). ... Anemia (AmE) or anaemia (BrE), from the Greek () meaning without blood, refers to a deficiency of red blood cells (RBCs) and/or hemoglobin. ...

EPO has now been identified as a glycoprotein with a molecular mass of about 30,000 Daltons. It has a 165 amino acid chain with four oligosaccharide side chains and circulates in the blood plasma at a very low concentration (about 5 pmol/L). A glycoprotein is a macromolecule composed of a protein and a carbohydrate (an oligosaccharide). ... The molecular mass (abbreviated MM) of a substance, formerly also called molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the mass of one molecule of that substance, relative to the unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12). ... The unified atomic mass unit (u), or Dalton (Da), is a small unit of mass used to express atomic and molecular masses. ... Phenylalanine is one of the standard amino acids. ... An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer containing a small number (typically three to six) of component sugars, also known as simple sugars. ... Blood plasma is the liquid component of blood, in which the blood cells are suspended. ... The mole (symbol: mol) is the SI base unit that measures an amount of substance. ... The litre or liter (U.S. spelling, see spelling differences) is a unit of volume. ...

In adult humans, EPO is produced primarily by peritubular cells in the kidneys, where its production is stimulated by low oxygen levels in the blood, also known as hypoxia. Some EPO is also produced by the liver, which is the primary source in the fetus. It has been suggested that Renal anomalies and Renal plasma threshold be merged into this article or section. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Atomic mass 15. ... Human blood smear: a - erythrocytes; b - neutrophil; c - eosinophil; d - lymphocyte. ... Hypoxia is a pathological condition in which the body as a whole (generalised hypoxia) or region of the body (tissue hypoxia) is deprived of adequate oxygen supply. ... The liver is an organ in some animals, including vertebrates (and therefore humans). ... A human fetus A fetus (or foetus, or fÅ“tus â€“ see below) is a developing mammal after the embryonic stage and before birth. ...

EPO acts by binding to a specific erythropoietin receptor (EpoR) on the surface of red cell precursors in the bone marrow, stimulating them to transform into mature red blood cells. As a result the oxygen level in blood reaching the kidney rises and the amount of EPO produced decreases. In biochemistry, a receptor is a protein on the cell membrane or within the cytoplasm or cell nucleus that binds to a specific molecule (a ligand), such as a neurotransmitter, hormone, or other substance, and initiates the cellular response to the ligand. ... Grays Anatomy illustration of cells in bone marrow. ... Human red blood cells Red blood cells are the most common type of blood cell and the vertebrate bodys principal means of delivering oxygen from the lungs or gills to body tissues via the blood. ... General Name, Symbol, Number oxygen, O, 8 Chemical series Nonmetals, chalcogens Group, Period, Block 16, 2, p Appearance colorless (gas) very pale blue (liquid) Atomic mass 15. ...

Because the kidneys are the primary source of erythropoietin, chronic kidney disease often results in a systemic deficiency of EPO and consequent anemia. Anemia can also occur in cancer patients, sometimes as a direct result of the malignancy but usually as an adverse effect of chemotherapy. Chronic renal failure (CRF, or chronic kidney failure, CKF, or chronic kidney disease, CKD) is a slowly progressive loss of renal function over a period of months or years and defined as an abnormally low glomerular filtration rate, which is usually determined indirectly by the creatinine level in blood serum. ... Anemia (AmE) or anaemia (BrE), from the Greek () meaning without blood, refers to a deficiency of red blood cells (RBCs) and/or hemoglobin. ... Chemotherapy is the use of chemical substances to treat disease. ...

Also, in patients who may require a blood transfusion or undergo surgery where blood loss is expected, EPO is given in advance as a precaution. The bone marrow produces more red blood cells, and if blood is lost during the operation, there is still enough to sustain the patient. Donating blood Blood transfusion is the process of transferring blood or blood-based products from one person into the circulatory system of another. ... Grays Anatomy illustration of cells in bone marrow. ...

EPO as a therapeutic agent

Therapeutic human EPO was initially isolated and purified from urine in 1977. In 1983, the gene coding for EPO was identified. In 1991 it was also approved for treating anemia resulting from cancer chemotherapy.Johnson & Johnson, an American pharmaceutical company, markets EPO under license from Amgen for cancer chemotherapy under the brand name Procrit. EPO is generally injected under the skin by the patient, although it may also be given intravenously. Several injections weekly are required for the original forms, but the long-acting forms may require injections only once every two weeks.By far the most common side-effect for any EPO products is fever. Also, use of EPO products can lead to an increased chance of the formation of blood clots. Headache, nausea, vomiting, and delirium are also common side-effects. All forms of EPO are expensive. A dialysis patient, who can expect to require lifelong EPO treatment, will pay up to $10,000 per year for the drug in the U.S. Cancer chemotherapy patients, who require EPO for shorter periods, pay about $1,000 per month in the U.S. Worldwide revenues for sales of EPO were over 'USD$10 billion in 2004.'

EPO as a blood doping agent

Although pharmaceutical EPO has benefited many thousands of anemic patients, it also has a converse side as a blood doping agent sometimes used by healthy athletes to gain a competitive advantage. By increasing the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood it increases the aerobic respiratory capacity of the muscles, making it appealing to participants in endurance sports such as cycling and long-distance running. It is considered to be especially valuable in multi-stage bicycle races, where it can offset the decrease in red blood cells that occurs over several weeks of racing. EPO doping probably became common in Grand Tour cycling after pharmaceutical EPO became available in the late 1980s, but there was at the time no way to prove its use in the absence of physical evidence of EPO possession. The deaths of a dozen or more elite cyclists in the early 1990s from heart failure while sleeping, were grim evidence of its overuse. Excessive use of pharmaceutical EPO can lead to so many red blood cells that the blood becomes thick enough to strain the heart, especially during sleep when the heart rate is low. Beyond a certain point, the increase in haematocrit is actually detrimental to the oxygen carrying capacity due to negative blood flow effects, and increases the likelihood of developing symptoms similar to chronic mountain sickness.The extent of the doping problem became undeniable after the Festina team scandal in the 1998 Tour de France, in which Willy Voet, was apprehended with a huge cache of doping materials, including EPO. He and others later wrote about the widespread use of drugs in cycling. In the 2000 Tour de France, a laboratory test to detect residues of pharmaceutical EPO in urine was introduced for the first time as an anti-doping measure. It was developed by the French National Laboratory for Doping Detection. The test method relies on laboratory methods for distinguishing pharmaceutical EPO from the endogenous EPO normally present in an athlete’s urine after strenuous exercise. Because existing brands of pharmaceutical EPO are made in cell culture animal cells, they have a different pattern of residues than the native human form. Although widely applied, the test is controversial. In 2005, Rutger Beke, a Belgian triathlete successfully challenged his conviction for EPO doping by presenting scientific evidence that the test was unreliable in his case. Several other athletes have since made similar defenses. In the highest profile case to date, Spanish rider Roberto Heras was stripped of what would have been his fourth win of the Vuelta a España in 2005 after a positive urine test for pharmaceutical EPO. He has asserted his innocence and vowed to challenge the conviction based on the handling of his sample and alleged weaknesses in the test method.

Erythropoietin and Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses believe in the Bible's command at Acts 15:28,29 to "abstain from blood"; this belief results in the refusal to accept transfusions of whole blood or any of its four major components.

The use of erythropoietin to increase the number of red blood cells is one suggested alternative to a blood transfusion.

The presence of human albumin in the erythropoietin mixture may preclude its use by some Jehovah's Witnesses, although an alternative now exists: Darbepoetin alfa (marketed under the name Aranesp), a synthetic form of erythropoietin containing no blood fractions. Darbepoetin alfa (rINN) (IPA: ) is a synthetic form of erythropoietin. ...

Adverse effects

Erythropoietin is associated with an increased risk of adverse cardiovascular complications if it is used to increase hemoglobin levels above 13.0 g/dl.^[1] 3-dimensional structure of hemoglobin. ...

See also

Amgen Inc. ... Previous forms of synthetic EPO were detectable because they were produced in non-human cells (i. ... Shire Pharmaceuticals Group plc is a British manufacturer of pharmaceuticals including Adderall XR, Carbatrol, and Fosrenol. ... Blood doping is the practice of illicitly boosting the number of red blood cells (RBCs) in the circulation in order to enhance athletic performance. ... The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania is the main legal entity used by Jehovahâ€™s Witnesses. ...

References

External links

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Endocrine system: hormones and endocrine glands

Peptide hormones, Steroid hormones This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Norepinephrine A hormone (from Greek ÏŒÏÎ¼Î® - to set in motion) is a chemical messenger from one cell (or group of cells) to another. ... An endocrine gland is one of a set of internal organs involved in the secretion of hormones into the blood. ... Peptide hormones are a class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have endocrine functions in living animals. ... Steroid hormones are steroids which act as hormones. ...

Hypothalamus: TRH, CRH , GnRH, GHRH, somatostatin, dopamine - Posterior pituitary: vasopressin, oxytocin, lipotropin - Anterior pituitary: GH, ACTH, , LH, FSH, prolactin, endorphins, POMC (TSH, MSH, lipotropin) - Pineal gland: melatonin The hypothalamus (from Greek á½‘Ï€Î¿Î¸Î±Î»Î±Î¼Î¿Ï‚ = under the thalamus) is a region of the mammalian brain located below the thalamus, forming the major portion of the ventral region of the diencephalon and functioning to regulate certain metabolic processes and other autonomic activities. ... Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH), also called thyrotropin-releasing factor (TRF) or protirelin, is a tripeptide hormone that stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone and prolactin by the anterior pituitary. ... Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), also called corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) or corticoliberin, is a polypeptide hormone involved in the stress response. ... Gonadotropin-releasing hormone 1 (GNRH1 also called LHRH) is a peptide hormone responsible for the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary. ... Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH), also known as growth hormone-releasing factor (GRF or GHRF), is a 44-amino acid peptide hormone produced in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. ... Somatostatin is a hormone. ... This article or section is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... The posterior pituitary (also called the neurohypophysis) comprises the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. ... Arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as argipressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a human hormone that is mainly released when the body is low on water; it causes the kidneys to conserve water by concentrating the urine and reducing urine volume. ... Oxytocin should not be confused with oxycodone hydrochloride whose trade name is OxyContin. ... Lipotropin is a pituitary hormone It comes in two forms: gamma lipotropin (Î³-LPH) beta lipotropin (Î²-LPH) It is derived from proopiomelanocortin. ... The anterior pituitary (also called the adenohypophysis) comprises the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland and is part of the endocrine system. ... Growth hormone (GH or somatotropin) is a 191 amino acid, single chain polypeptide hormone which is synthesised, stored and secreted by the stomatotraph cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland, which stimulates growth and cell reproduction in humans and other vertebrate animals. ... Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH or corticotropin) is a polypeptide hormone synthesised (from POMC, pre-opiomelanocortin) and secreted from corticotropes in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland in response to the hormone corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) released by the hypothalamus. ... Luteinizing hormone (LH) is a hormone synthesized and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. ... Follicle stimulating hormone Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is a hormone synthesised and secreted by gonadotropes in the anterior pituitary gland. ... Prolactin is a peptide hormone synthesised and secreted by lactotrope cells in the adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary gland). ... // Runners High redirects here. ... Pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) is a precursor polypeptide with 241 amino acid residues. ... Thyroid-stimulating hormone (also known as TSH or thyrotropin) is a hormone synthesized and secreted by thyrotrope cells in the anterior pituitary gland which regulates the endocrine function of the thyroid gland. ... Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH) is a peptide hormone produced by cells in the intermediate lobe of the pituitary gland. ... Lipotropin is a pituitary hormone It comes in two forms: gamma lipotropin (Î³-LPH) beta lipotropin (Î²-LPH) It is derived from proopiomelanocortin. ... The pineal gland (also called the pineal body or epiphysis) is a small endocrine gland in the brain. ... Melatonin, 5-methoxy-N-acetyltryptamine, is a hormone found in all living creatures from algae[1] to humans, at levels that vary in a diurnal cycle. ...

Thyroid: thyroid hormone (T₃ and T₄) - Parathyroid: PTH - Adrenal medulla: epinephrine, norepinephrine - Adrenal cortex: aldosterone, cortisol, DHEA - Pancreas: glucagon- insulin, somatostatin The thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. ... The thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. ... The thyroid hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), are tyrosine-based hormones produced by the thyroid gland. ... Categories: Anatomy stubs | Endocrine system ... Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is secreted by the parathyroid glands as a polypeptide containing 84 amino acids. ... Grays Fig. ... Adrenaline redirects here. ... Norepinephrine (INN) or noradrenaline (BAN) is a catecholamine and a phenethylamine with chemical formula C8H11NO3. ... Grays Fig. ... Aldosterone is a steroid hormone synthesized from cholesterol by the enzyme aldosterone synthase. ... Cortisol is a corticosteroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex that is involved in the response to stress; it increases blood pressure, blood sugar levels, may cause infertility in women, and suppresses the immune system. ... Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), is a natural steroid hormone produced from cholesterol by the adrenal glands, the gonads, adipose tissue and the brain. ... The pancreas is an organ in the digestive and endocrine system that serves two major functions: exocrine (producing pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes) and endocrine (producing several important hormones, including insulin). ... Glucagon ball and stick model A microscopic image stained for glucagon. ... Insulin (from Latin insula, island, as it is produced in the Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas) is a polypeptide hormone that regulates carbohydrate metabolism. ... Somatostatin is a hormone. ...

Kidney: renin, EPO, calcitriol, prostaglandin - Heart atrium: ANP - Stomach: gastrin - Duodenum: CCK, GIP, secretin, motilin, VIP - Ileum: enteroglucagon - Liver: IGF-1 - Adipose tissue: leptin, adiponectin It has been suggested that Renal anomalies and Renal plasma threshold be merged into this article or section. ... Renin, also known as angiotensinogenase, is a circulating enzyme (EC 3. ... Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ... Chemical structure of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). ... In anatomy, the atrium (plural: atria) is the blood collection chamber of a heart. ... Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) or atriopeptin, is a polypeptide hormone involved in the homeostatic control of body water and sodium. ... In anatomy, the stomach (in ancient Greek ÏƒÏ„ÏŒÎ¼Î±Ï‡Î¿Ï‚) is an organ of the gastrointestinal tract involved in the second phase of digestion, following mastication. ... In humans, gastrin is a hormone that stimulates secretion of gastric acid by the stomach. ... In anatomy of the digestive system, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube connecting the stomach to the jejunum. ... Cholecystokinin (from Greek chole, bile; cysto, sac; kinin, move; hence, move the bile-sac (gall bladder)) is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein. ... Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) is a gastrointestinal hormone secreted by the duodenum. ... Secretin is a peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the duodenum. ... Motilin is a polypeptide hormone secreted by the small intestine that increases gastrointestinal motility and stimulates the production of pepsin. ... VIP is a peptide hormone containing 28 amino acid residues. ... Grays Fig. ... An editor has expressed a concern that the topic of this article may be unencyclopedic. ... The liver is an organ in some animals, including vertebrates (and therefore humans). ... Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) is a polypeptide protein hormone similar in molecular structure to insulin. ... It has been suggested that Subcutaneous fat be merged into this article or section. ... Leptin is a 16 kDa protein hormone that plays a key role in regulating energy intake and energy expenditure, including the regulation of appetite and metabolism. ... Adiponectin (also referred to as Acrp30, apM1) is a protein hormone that modulates a number of metabolic processes, including glucose regulation and fatty acid catabolism. ...

Testis: testosterone, AMH, inhibin - Ovary: estradiol, progesterone, inhibin, activin, relaxin (pregnancy) - Placenta: hCG, HPL, estrogen, progesterone Human male anatomy The testicles, known medically as testes (singular testis), are the male generative glands in animals. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... Anti-MÃ¼llerian hormone (AMH) is a dimeric glycoprotein that inhibits the development of the MÃ¼llerian ducts in a male embryo. ... Inhibin is a peptide that is an inhibitor of FSH synthesis and secretion and participates in the regulation of the menstrual cycle. ... Human female internal reproductive anatomy Ovaries are egg-producing reproductive organs found in female organisms. ... Estradiol (17Î²-estradiol) (also oestradiol) is a sex hormone. ... Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. ... Inhibin is a peptide that is an inhibitor of FSH synthesis and secretion and participates in the regulation of the menstrual cycle. ... Activin is a peptide that enhances FSH synthesis and secretion and participates in the regulation of the menstrual cycle. ... Categories: Possible copyright violations ... The placenta is an ephemeral (temporary) organ present only in female placental vertebrates during gestation (pregnancy). ... Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a peptide hormone produced in pregnancy, that is made by the embryo soon after conception and later by the syncytiotrophoblast (part of the placenta). ... Human placental lactogen (HPL), also called human chorionic somatomammotropin, is a polypeptide placental hormone. ... Estriol. ... Progesterone is a C-21 steroid hormone involved in the female menstrual cycle, pregnancy (supports gestation) and embryogenesis of humans and other species. ...

Target-derived NGF, BDNF, NT-3 Nerve growth factor (NGF), the prototypical growth factor, is a protein secreted by a neurons target. ... Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is exactly as it states; a neurotrophic factor usually derived in the brain. ... Neurotrophin-3, or NT-3 is a neurotrophic factor, in the NGF (Nerve Growth Factor)-family of neurotrophins. ...

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Urinary system, physiology: renal physiology

Filtration: Ultrafiltration - Countercurrent exchange The urinary system is the organ system that produces, stores, and eliminates urine. ... Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of normal humans or human tissues or organs. ... Renal physiology is the study of the physiology of the kidneys. ... In chemistry, alchemy and water treatment, filtration is the process of using a filter to mechanically separate a mixture. ... Ultrafiltration (UF) is a variety of membrane filtration in which hydrostatic pressure forces a liquid against a semipermeable membrane. ... Countercurrent exchange is a mechanism used to transfer some component of a fluid from one flowing current of fluid to another across a permeable barrier between them. ...

Hormones affecting filtration:Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - Aldosterone - Atrial natriuretic peptide Arginine vasopressin (AVP), also known as argipressin or antidiuretic hormone (ADH), is a human hormone that is mainly released when the body is low on water; it causes the kidneys to conserve water by concentrating the urine and reducing urine volume. ... Aldosterone is a steroid hormone synthesized from cholesterol by the enzyme aldosterone synthase. ... Atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) or atriopeptin, is a polypeptide hormone involved in the homeostatic control of body water and sodium. ...

Endocrine: Renin - Erythropoietin (EPO) - Calcitriol (Active vitamin D) - Prostaglandins The endocrine system is a control system of ductless endocrine glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones that circulate within the body via the bloodstream to affect distant organs. ... Renin, also known as angiotensinogenase, is a circulating enzyme (EC 3. ... Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin that contributes to the maintenance of normal levels of calcium and phosphorus in the bloodstream. ... Chemical structure of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). ...

Assessing Renal function / Measures of dialysis: Glomerular filtration rate - Creatinine clearance - Renal clearance ratio - Urea reduction ratio - Kt/V - Standardized Kt/V - Hemodialysis product In medicine (nephrology) renal function is an indication of the state of the kidney and its role in physiology. ... In nephrology, dialysis adequacy is the measurement of renal dialysis for the purpose of determining dialysis treatment regime and to better understand the pathophysiology of renal dialysis. ... Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the volume of fluid filtered from the renal glomerular capillaries into Bowmans capsule per unit time. ... Creatinine clearance is a method that estimates the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) of the kidneys. ... The renal clearance ratio is found with the following equation: X is the analyte substance Cx is the renal plasma clearance of X Cin is the renal plasma clearance of inulin. ... The urea reduction ratio (URR), is a dimensionless number used to quantify hemodialysis treatment adequacy. ... Kt/V - a dimensionless number used to quantify hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis treatment adequacy. ... Standardized Kt/V, also std Kt/V, is a way of measuring (renal) dialysis adequacy. ... Hemodialysis product (HDP) - is a number used to quantify hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis treatment adequacy. ...

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Contents

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