NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Ethanol fuel

Ethanol fuel is ethanol (ethyl alcohol), the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. It can be used as a fuel, mainly as a biofuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used in cars in Brazil. Because it is easy to manufacture and process, and can be made from very common crops, such as sugar cane and maize (corn), it is an increasingly common alternative to gasoline in some parts of the world. Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... Bio-energy redirects here. ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland Geothermal power (from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and therme, meaning heat) is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earths surface or the collection of absorbed heat in the atmosphere and oceans. ... Hydroelectricity is electricity produced by hydropower. ... The Solar Two 10 MW solar power facility, showing the power tower (left) surrounded by the sun-tracking mirrors. ... Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of hydropower that exploits the movement of water caused by tidal currents or the rise and fall in sea levels due to the tides. ... Wave power refers to the energy of ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work - including electricity generation, desalination, and the pumping of water (into reservoirs). ... An example of a wind turbine. ... Image File history File links EthanolPetrol. ... Image File history File links EthanolPetrol. ... This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Alcoholic beverages are drinks containing ethanol, popularly called alcohol. ... Bio-energy redirects here. ... This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... This article is about the maize plant. ... Petrol redirects here. ...

Anhydrous ethanol (ethanol with less than 1% water) can be blended with gasoline in varying quantities up to pure ethanol (E100), and most spark-ignited gasoline style engines will operate well with mixtures of 10% ethanol (E10).^[1] Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol,^[2] and the use of 10% ethanol gasoline is mandated in some cities where harmful levels of auto emissions are possible.^[3] Grain alcohol redirects here. ... It has been suggested that Gasoline type C be merged into this article or section. ...

Ethanol can be mass-produced by fermentation of sugar or by hydration of ethylene from petroleum and other sources. Current interest in ethanol mainly lies in bio-ethanol, produced from the starch or sugar in a wide variety of crops, but there has been considerable debate about how useful bio-ethanol will be in replacing fossil fuels in vehicles. Concerns relate to the large amount of arable land required for crops,^[4] as well as the energy and pollution balance of the whole cycle of ethanol production.^[5]^[6] Recent developments with cellulosic ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of these concerns.^[7] Ethylene (or IUPAC name ethene) is the chemical compound with the formula C2H4. ... Petro redirects here. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8, chemical formula (C6H10O5)n,[1]) is a mixture of amylose and amylopectin (usually in 20:80 or 30:70 ratios). ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... Three phases of ethanol commercialization are emerging. ...

According to the International Energy Agency, cellulosic ethanol could allow ethanol fuels to play a much bigger role in the future than previously thought.^[8] Cellulosic ethanol offers promise as resistant cellulose fibers, a major component in plant cells walls, can be used to generate ethanol. Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass, are also promising cellulose sources that can be produced in many regions of the United States.^[9] However, scientists, such as David Pimentel and Tad Patzek say that more fossil energy is needed to produce ethanol than it produces, due to artificial fertilizers and oil used for heating during the fermentation process ^[10] IEA Logo Map of members The International Energy Agency (IEA, or AIE in Romance languages) is a Paris-based intergovernmental organization founded by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in 1974 in the wake of the oil crisis. ... Cellulosic ethanol (also called lignocellulosic ethanol/ ceetoh and ceetol) is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. ... Binomial name L. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a warm season grass and is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie. ...

Chemistry

During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Covalently bonded hydrogen and carbon in a molecule of methane. ... Beer - A Product of Ethanol Fermentation Ethanol fermentation is the biological process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. ... Glucose (Glc), a monosaccharide (or simple sugar), is an important carbohydrate in biology. ... Grain alcohol redirects here. ... Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: ) is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ...

During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat: (other air pollutants are also produced when ethanol is burned in the atmosphere rather than in pure oxygen) This article is about the chemical element and its most stable form, or dioxygen. ... Impact from a water drop causes an upward rebound jet surrounded by circular capillary waves. ... Atmospheres redirects here. ...

This is the reverse of the photosynthesis reaction, which shows that the three reactions completely cancel each other out, only converting light into heat without leaving any byproducts: Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. ...

Sources

Ethanol is considered "renewable" because it is primarily the result of conversion of the sun's energy into usable energy. Creation of ethanol starts with photosynthesis causing the feedstocks such as switchgrass, sugar cane, or corn to grow. These feedstocks are processed into ethanol. An energy crop is a plant domesticated for use in agriculture and is produced as a low cost and low maintenance harvest (generally, non food crops) to be used to make biofuels or directly exploited for its energy content. ... Image File history File links Saccharum-officinarum-harvest. ... Image File history File links Saccharum-officinarum-harvest. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 1492 KB) Photographer: Lotus Head Source: sxc. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (1600x1200, 1492 KB) Photographer: Lotus Head Source: sxc. ... Image File history File links Panicum_virgatum. ... Image File history File links Panicum_virgatum. ... Binomial name L. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a warm season grass and is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie. ... Renewable energy effectively utilizes natural resources such as sunlight, wind, tides and geothermal heat, which are naturally replenished. ... Sol redirects here. ... Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. ... Binomial name L. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a warm season grass and is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... Binomial name L. Corn (Zea mays L. ssp. ...

About 5% of the ethanol produced in the world in 2003 was actually a petroleum product.^[11] It is made by the catalytic hydration of ethylene with sulfuric acid as the catalyst. It can also be obtained via ethylene or acetylene, from calcium carbide, coal, oil gas, and other sources. Two million tons of petroleum-derived ethanol are produced annually. The principal suppliers are plants in the United States, Europe, and South Africa.^[12] Petroleum derived ethanol (synthetic ethanol) is chemically identical to bio-ethanol and can be differentiated only by radiocarbon dating.^[13] Sulfuric acid, (also known as sulphuric acid) H2SO4, is a strong mineral acid. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Catalysis. ... Ethylene (or IUPAC name ethene) is the chemical compound with the formula C2H4. ... Acetylene (systematic name: ethyne) is a hydrocarbon belonging to the group of alkynes. ... Calcium carbide is the chemical compound with the formula CaC2. ... Coal Example chemical structure of coal Coal is a fossil fuel formed in ecosystems where plant remains were saved by water and mud from oxidization and biodegradation. ...

Bio-ethanol is obtained from the conversion of carbon based feedstock. Agricultural feedstocks are considered renewable because they get energy from the sun using photosynthesis, provided that all minerals required for growth (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) are returned to the land. Ethanol can be produced from a variety of feedstocks such as sugar cane, bagasse, miscanthus, sugar beet, sorghum, grain sorghum, switchgrass, barley, hemp, kenaf, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, sunflower, fruit, molasses, corn, stover, grain, wheat, straw, cotton, other biomass, as well as many types of cellulose waste and harvestings, whichever has the best well-to-wheel assessment. Sol redirects here. ... Photosynthesis splits water to liberate O2 and fixes CO2 into sugar The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis in plants. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... Bagasse (sometimes spelled bagass) is the biomass remaining after sugarcane stalks are crushed to extract their juice. ... Species See text. ... Two sugar beets - the one on the left has been cultivated to be smoother than the traditional beet, so that it traps less soil. ... Species About 30 species, see text Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, some of which are raised for grain and many of which are utilised as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. ... Species About 30 species, see text Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, some of which are raised for grain and many of which are utilised as fodder plants either cultivated or as part of pasture. ... Binomial name L. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a warm season grass and is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie. ... For other uses, see Barley (disambiguation). ... U.S. Marihuana production permit. ... Binomial name L. Kenaf [Etymology: Persian [1] ]. (Hibiscus cannabinus) is a species of Hibiscus, probably native to southern Asia, though its exact natural origin is unknown. ... For other uses, see Potato (disambiguation). ... Binomial name (L.) Lam. ... Yuca redirects here. ... For other uses, see Sunflower (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Fruit (disambiguation). ... Molasses or treacle is a thick syrup by-product from the processing of the sugarcane or sugar beet into sugar. ... Binomial name L. Corn (Zea mays L. ssp. ... For other uses, see Stover (disambiguation). ... The word grain has several meanings, most being descriptive of a small piece or particle. ... Species T. aestivum T. boeoticum T. dicoccoides T. dicoccon T. durum T. monococcum T. spelta T. sphaerococcum T. timopheevii References: ITIS 42236 2002-09-22 Wheat Wheat For the indie rock group, see Wheat (band). ... Bales of straw bundles of rice straw Pile of straw bales, sheltered under a tarpaulin Straw is an agricultural byproduct, the dry stalk of a cereal plant, after the nutrient grain or seed has been removed. ... For other uses, see Cotton (disambiguation). ... For the use of the term in ecology, see Biomass (ecology). ... Cellulose as polymer of Î²-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... It has been suggested that NMVOC be merged into this article or section. ...

Current, first generation processes for the production of ethanol from corn use only a small part of the corn plant: the corn kernels are taken from the corn plant and only the starch, which represents about 50% of the dry kernel mass, is transformed into ethanol. Two types of second generation processes are under development. The first type uses enzymes and yeast to convert the plant cellulose into ethanol while the second type uses pyrolysis to convert the whole plant to either a liquid bio-oil or a syngas. Second generation processes can also be used with plants such as grasses, wood or agricultural waste material such as straw. Ribbon diagram of the enzyme TIM, surrounded by the space-filling model of the protein. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota (sac fungi) Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic micro organisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1,500 species described;[1] they dominate fungal diversity in the oceans. ... Simple sketch of pyrolysis chemistry Pyrolysis usually means the chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of oxygen or any other reagents, except possibly steam. ... Biofuel is any fuel that derives from biomass â€” recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. ... It has been suggested that Town gas be merged into this article or section. ...

Production process

The basic steps for large scale production of ethanol are: microbial (yeast) fermentation of sugars, distillation, dehydration (requirements vary, see Ethanol fuel mixtures, below), and denaturing (optional). Prior to fermentation, some crops require saccharification or hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch into sugars. Saccharification of cellulose is called cellulolysis (see cellulosic ethanol). Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar.^[14] This article does not cite any references or sources. ... Typical divisions Ascomycota (sac fungi) Saccharomycotina (true yeasts) Taphrinomycotina Schizosaccharomycetes (fission yeasts) Basidiomycota (club fungi) Urediniomycetes Sporidiales Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic micro organisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1,500 species described;[1] they dominate fungal diversity in the oceans. ... For other uses, see Fermentation. ... Laboratory distillation set-up: 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed control 13: Stirrer/heat plate... Dehydration (hypohydration) is the removal of water (hydro in ancient Greek) from an object. ... Denatured alcohol is ethanol with added adulterants that make it useless for consumption as an intoxicating beverage by rendering it toxic or extremely distasteful to drink, but still useful for industrial processes or as a household chemical. ... Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process in which a chemical compound reacts with water. ... Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process in which a chemical compound is broken down by reaction with water. ... Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process in which a chemical compound reacts with water. ... Cellulosic ethanol (also called lignocellulosic ethanol/ ceetoh and ceetol) is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. ...

Fermentation

Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of the sugar. Microbial fermentation will currently only work directly with sugars. Two major components of plants, starch and cellulose, are both made up of sugars, and can in principle be converted to sugars for fermentation. Currently, only the sugar (e.g. sugar cane) and starch (e.g. corn) portions can be economically converted. However, there is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol, where the cellulose part of a plant is broken down to sugars and subsequently converted to ethanol. Beer - A Product of Ethanol Fermentation Ethanol fermentation is the biological process by which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose, are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... Starch (CAS# 9005-25-8, chemical formula (C6H10O5)n,[1]) is a mixture of amylose and amylopectin (usually in 20:80 or 30:70 ratios). ... Cellulose as polymer of Î²-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... Cellulosic ethanol (also called lignocellulosic ethanol/ ceetoh and ceetol) is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. ...

Distillation

For the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, water must be removed. Most of the water is removed by distillation, but the purity is limited to 95-96% due to the formation of a low-boiling water-ethanol azeotrope. The 95.6% m/m (96.5% v/v) ethanol, 4.4% m/m (3.5% v/v) water mixture may be used as a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol, is immiscible in gasoline, so the water fraction is typically removed in further treatment in order to burn with in combination with gasoline in gasoline engines. Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 556 pixelsFull resolution (2485 Ã— 1728 pixel, file size: 2. ... Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 556 pixelsFull resolution (2485 Ã— 1728 pixel, file size: 2. ... Burlington is a city in Des Moines County, Iowa, United States. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 497 pixelsFull resolution (1271 Ã— 789 pixel, file size: 254 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Image File history File links Size of this preview: 800 Ã— 497 pixelsFull resolution (1271 Ã— 789 pixel, file size: 254 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Laboratory distillation set-up: 1: Heat source 2: Still pot 3: Still head 4: Thermometer/Boiling point temperature 5: Condenser 6: Cooling water in 7: Cooling water out 8: Distillate/receiving flask 9: Vacuum/gas inlet 10: Still receiver 11: Heat control 12: Stirrer speed control 13: Stirrer/heat plate... This article needs more context around or a better explanation of technical details to make it more accessible to general readers and technical readers outside the specialty, without removing technical details. ... As a general term, a substance is said to be anhydrous if it contains no water. ...

Dehydration

Currently, the most widely used purification method is a physical absorption process using a molecular sieve, for example, ZEOCHEM Z3-03 (a special 3A molecular sieve for EtOH dehydration). Another method, azeotropic distillation, is achieved by adding the hydrocarbon benzene which also denatures the ethanol (to render it undrinkable for duty purposes). A third method involves use of calcium oxide as a desiccant. 2006 is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... A molecular sieve is a material containing tiny pores of a precise and uniform size that is used as an adsorbent for gases and liquids. ... In chemistry, azeotropic distillation is any of a range of techniques used to break an azeotrope in distillation. ... Benzene, or Benzol (see also Benzine), is an organic chemical compound and a known carcinogen with the molecular formula C6H6. ... In economics, a duty is a kind of tax, often associated with customs, a payment due to the revenue of a state, levied by force of law. ... Calcium oxide (CaO), commonly known as lime, quicklime or burnt lime, is a widely used chemical compound. ... A dessicant is a hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains a state of dryness (desiccation) in its local vicinity in a moderately-well sealed container. ...

Technology

Ethanol-based engines

Ethanol is most commonly used to power automobiles, though it may be used to power other vehicles, such as farm tractors and airplanes. Ethanol (E100) consumption in an engine is approximately 34% higher than that of gasoline (the energy per volume unit is 34% lower).^[15]^[16] However, higher compression ratios in an ethanol-only engine allow for increased power output and better fuel economy than would be obtained with the lower compression ratio.^[17]^[18] In general, ethanol-only engines are tuned to give slightly better power and torque output to gasoline-powered engines. In flexible fuel vehicles, the lower compression ratio requires tunings that give the same output when using either gasoline or hydrated ethanol. For maximum use of ethanol's benefits, a much higher compression ratio should be used,^[19] which would render that engine unsuitable for gasoline use. When ethanol fuel availability allows high-compression ethanol-only vehicles to be practical, the fuel efficiency of such engines should be equal or greater than current gasoline engines. However, since the energy content (by volume) of ethanol fuel is less than gasoline, a larger volume of ethanol fuel (151%) would still be required to produce the same amount of energy.^[20] A modern farm tractor. ... This article refers to the tool of travel. ...

A 2004 MIT study,^[21] and an earlier paper published by the Society of Automotive Engineers,^[22] describing tests, identify a method to exploit the characteristics of fuel ethanol that is substantially better than mixing it with gasoline. The method presents the possibility of leveraging the use of alcohol to even achieve definite improvement over the cost-effectiveness of hybrid electric. The improvement consists of using dual-fuel direct-injection of pure alcohol (or the azeotrope or E85) and gasoline, in any ratio up to 100% of either, in a turbocharged, high compression-ratio, small-displacement engine having performance similar to an engine having twice the displacement. Each fuel is carried separately, with a much smaller tank for alcohol. The high-compression (which increases efficiency) engine will run on ordinary gasoline under low-power cruise conditions. Alcohol is directly injected into the cylinders (and the gasoline injection simultaneously reduced) only when necessary to suppress ‘knock’ such as when significantly accelerating. Direct cylinder injection raises the already high octane rating of ethanol up to an effective 130. The calculated over-all reduction of gasoline use and CO2 emission is 30%. The consumer cost payback time shows a 4:1 improvement over turbo-diesel and a 5:1 improvement over hybrid. In addition, the problems of water absorption into pre-mixed gasoline (causing phase separation), supply issues of multiple mix ratios and cold-weather starting are avoided.

Ethanol's higher octane rating allows an increase of an engine's compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency.^[23] In one study, complex engine controls and increased exhaust gas recirculation allowed a compression ratio of 19.5 with fuels ranging from neat ethanol to E50. Thermal efficiency up to approximately that for a diesel was achieved.^[24] This would result in the MPG (miles per gallon) of a dedicated ethanol vehicle to be about the same as one burning gasoline. The thermal efficiency () is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an internal combustion engine, a boiler, or a furnace, for example. ...

Engines using fuel with from 30% to 100% ethanol also need a cold-starting system. For E85 fuel at temperatures below 11 °C (52 °F) a cold-starting system is required for reliable starting and to meet EPA emissions standards.^[25] However, the EPA does not require cold start systems on E85 vehicles. No current production E85 vehicles in the USA are equipped with these cold start systems, and they meet EPA emission guidelines.^{[citation needed]}

Ethanol fuel mixtures

To avoid engine stall due to "slugs" of water in the fuel lines interrupting fuel flow, the fuel must exist as a single phase. The fraction of water that an ethanol-gasoline fuel can contain without phase separation increases with the percentage of ethanol.^[26]. This shows, for example, that E30 can have up to about 2% water. If there is more than about 71% ethanol, the remainder can be any proportion of water or gasoline and phase separation will not occur. However, the fuel mileage declines with increased water content. The increased solubility of water with higher ethanol content permits E30 and hydrated ethanol to be put in the same tank since any combination of them always results in a single phase. Somewhat less water is tolerated at lower temperatures. For E10 it is about 0.5% v/v at 70 F and decreases to about 0.23% v/v at -30 F.^[27] It has been suggested that Gasoline type C be merged into this article or section. ... Image File history File links Gas_x_Ã¡lcool_-_70%.svgâ€Ž Hydrated ethanol x gasoline type C price table for use in Brazil. ... Image File history File links Gas_x_Ã¡lcool_-_70%.svgâ€Ž Hydrated ethanol x gasoline type C price table for use in Brazil. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ...

In many countries cars are mandated to run on mixtures of ethanol. Brazil requires cars be suitable for a 25% ethanol blend, and has required various mixtures between 22% and 25% ethanol, as of October 2006 23% is required. The United States allows up to 10% blends, and some states require this (or a smaller amount) in all gasoline sold. Other countries have adopted their own requirements. Beginning with the model year 1999, an increasing number of vehicles in the world are manufactured with engines which can run on any fuel from 0% ethanol up to 100% ethanol without modification. Many cars and light trucks (a class containing minivans, SUVs and pickup trucks) are designed to be flexible-fuel vehicles (also called dual-fuel vehicles). In older model years, their engine systems contained alcohol sensors in the fuel and/or oxygen sensors in the exhaust that provide input to the engine control computer to adjust the fuel injection to achieve stochiometric (no residual fuel or free oxygen in the exhaust) air-to-fuel ratio for any fuel mix. In newer models, the alcohol sensors have been removed, with the computer using only oxygen and airflow sensor feedback to estimate alcohol content. The engine control computer can also adjust (advance) the ignition timing to achieve a higher output without pre-ignition when it predicts that higher alcohol percentages are present in the fuel being burned. This method is backed up by advanced knock sensors - used in most high performance gasoline engines regardless if they're designed to use ethanol or not - that detect pre-ignition and detonation. Light truck or light duty truck is a classification for trucks or truck-based vehicles with a payload capacity of less than 4,000 pounds (1,815 kg). ... It has been suggested that Mini MPV be merged into this article or section. ... A fourth-generation (2006-) Ford Explorer, the best-selling mid-size SUV in the United States. ... The best selling North American pickup truck, the Ford F-Series. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... In chemistry, stoichiometry is the study and calculation of quantitative (measurable) relationships of the reactants and products in chemical reactions (chemical equations). ...

Fuel economy

In theory, all fuel-driven vehicles have a fuel economy (measured as miles per US gallon, or liters per 100 km) that is directly proportional to the fuel's energy content.^[28]In reality, there are many other variables that come in to play that affect the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine. Ethanol contains approx. 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, and therefore in theory, burning pure ethanol in a vehicle will result in a 34% reduction in miles per US gallon, given the same fuel economy, compared to burning pure gasoline. This assumes that the octane ratings of the fuels, and the thus the engine's ability to extract energy from the fuels, are the same.^[15]^[16] For E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), the effect is small (~3%) when compared to conventional gasoline,^[29] and even smaller (1-2%) when compared to oxygenated and reformulated blends.^[30] However, for E85 (85% ethanol), the effect becomes significant. E85 will produce lower mileage than gasoline, and will require more frequent refueling. Actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. The EPA-rated mileage of current USA flex-fuel vehicles^[31] should be considered when making price comparisons, but it must be noted that E85 is a high performance fuel, with an octane rating of about 104, and should be compared to premium. In one estimate^[32] the US retail price for E85 ethanol is 2.62 US dollar per gallon or 3.71 dollar corrected for energy equivalency compared to a gallon of gasoline priced at 3.03 dollar. Brazilian cane ethanol (100%)is priced at 3.88 dollar against 4.91 dollar for E25 (figures July 2007). Fuel efficiency, sometimes also referred to as fuel economy and commonly gas mileage in the United States, is a numeric measure often used to describe the amount of fuel consumed with regard to the distance travelled in a transportation vehicle, such as an automobile. ... Logo used in the United States for E85 fuel Not to be confused with European route E85, a motorway in Europe. ... For people whose family name is Price see Price (disambiguation). ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ...

Experience by country

The top five ethanol producers in 2006 were the United States with 4.855 billion U.S. liquid gallons (bg), Brazil (4.49 bg), China (1.02 bg), India (0.50 bg) and France (0.25 bg).^[33] Brazil and the United States accounted for 70 percent of all ethanol production, with total world production of 13.5 billion US gallons (40 million tonnes). When accounting just for fuel ethanol production in 2007, the U.S. and Brazil are responsible for 88% of the 13.1 billion gallons total world production. Strong incentives, coupled with other industry development initiatives, are giving rise to fledgling ethanol industries in countries such as Thailand, Colombia, and some Central American countries. Nevertheless, ethanol has yet to make a dent in world oil consumption of approximately 4000 million tonnes/yr (84 million barrels/day).^[34] The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... For other uses, see Central America (disambiguation). ...

The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Brazil. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Brazil. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Peoples_Republic_of_China. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_India. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Peoples_Republic_of_China. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Germany. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Thailand. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Russia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Colombia. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_India. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Spain. ... For other uses, see Central America (disambiguation). ... Image File history File links Flag_of_South_Africa. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Thailand. ... Siam redirects here. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Turkey. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom. ... Image File history File links No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Ukraine. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Peru. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Poland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Argentina. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Saudi_Arabia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Paraguay. ...

Brazil

Brazil has the largest and most successful bio-fuel programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and it is considered to have the world's first sustainable biofuels economy.^[36]^[37]^[38] In 2006 Brazilian ethanol provided around 20% of the country's road transport sector fuel consumption needs, and more than 40% of fuel consumption for the light vehicle fleet.^[39]^[40] ^[37] As a result of the increasing use of ethanol, together with the exploitation of domestic deep water oil sources, Brazil, which years ago had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption, in 2006 reached complete self-sufficiency in oil supply.^[41]^[42]^[43] Gasoline on the left, alcohol on the right at a filling station in Brazil Brazilâ€™s 29-year-old ethanol fuel program uses cheap sugar cane, mainly bagasse (cane-waste) for process heat and power, and modern equipment, and provides a ~22% ethanol blend used nationwide, plus 100% hydrous ethanol... Petrobras, short for PetrÃ³leo Brasileiro S.A., is a government-owned Brazilian oil company headquartered in Rio de Janeiro. ... In the treatment of dental cavities, after drilling out the cavities, dental fillings are inserted. ... This article is about the city. ... Petrol redirects here. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... Petrol redirects here. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... Forests on San Juan Island in Washington. ... Bio-energy redirects here. ... Grain alcohol redirects here. ...

Together, Brazil and the United States lead the industrial world in global ethanol production, accounting together for 70% of the world's production^[44] and nearly 90% of ethanol used for fuel. ^[45] In 2006 Brazil produced 16.3 billion liters (4.3 billion U.S. liquid gallons),^[33] which represents 33.3% of the world's total ethanol production and 42% of the world's ethanol used as fuel.^[45] Sugar cane plantations cover 3.6 million hectares of land for ethanol production, representing just 1% of Brazil's arable land, with a productivity of 7,500 liters of ethanol per hectare, as compared with the U.S. maize ethanol productivity of 3,000 liters per hectare.^[46]^[36] Grain alcohol redirects here. ... The liter (spelled liter in American English and litre in Commonwealth English) is a unit of volume. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... A hectare (symbol ha) is a metric unit of surface area, equal to 100 ares (the name is a contraction of the SI prefix hecto + are). ... This article is about the maize plant. ...

Guaranteed purchase and price regulation were ended some years ago, with relatively positive results. In addition to these other policies, ethanol producers in the state of São Paulo established a research and technology transfer center that has been effective in improving sugar cane and ethanol yields.^[47]

There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. Since 1977 the government made mandatory to blend 20% of ethanol (E20) with gasoline (gasohol), requiring just a minor adjustment on regular gasoline motors. Today the mandatory blend is allowed to vary nationwide between 20% to 25% ethanol (E25) and it is used by all regular gasoline vehicles, plus three million cars running on 100% anhydrous ethanol and five million of dual or flexible-fuel vehicles. The Brazilian car manufacturing industry developed full flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on any proportion of gasoline and ethanol.^[48] Introduced in the market in 2003, these vehicles became a commercial success.^[49] On March 2008, the fleet of "flex" cars and light commercial vehicles had reached 5 million new vehicles sold.^[50] which represents around 10% of Brazil's motor vehicle fleet and 15.6% of all light vehicles.^[51] The ethanol-powered and "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, are manufactured to tolerate hydrated ethanol, an azeotrope comprised of 95.6% ethanol and 4.4% water.^[52] It has been suggested that this article might be improved by explaining why the subject is significant or notable. ... Petrol redirects here. ... The use of alcohol as a fuel for internal combustion engines, either alone or in combination with other fuels, has been given much attention mostly because of its possible environmental and long-term economical advantages over fossil fuels. ... It has been suggested that Gasoline type C be merged into this article or section. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ... This article needs more context around or a better explanation of technical details to make it more accessible to general readers and technical readers outside the specialty, without removing technical details. ...

United States

The United States produces and consumes more ethanol fuel than any other country in the world. Most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. In 2007, Portland, Oregon, recently became the first city in the United States to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10% ethanol.^[53]^[54] As of January 2008, three states — Missouri, Minnesota, and Hawaii — require ethanol to be blended with gasoline motor fuel. Many cities are also required to use an ethanol blend due to non-attainment of federal air quality goals.^[55] Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article may require cleanup. ...

Several motor vehicle manufacturers, including Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM, sell flexible-fuel vehicles that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline all the way up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.^[56] Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2580x1932, 796 KB)A New York City Department of Sanitation automobile fueled by clean burning ethanol. Photograph taken July 11, 2005. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (2580x1932, 796 KB)A New York City Department of Sanitation automobile fueled by clean burning ethanol. Photograph taken July 11, 2005. ... The Ford Taurus is a mid-size, front wheel drive car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company in North America. ... New York, New York and NYC redirect here. ... â€œFordâ€ redirects here. ... DaimlerChrysler AG (ISIN: DE0007100000) is a German car corporation and the worlds eighth largest car manufacturer. ... General Motors Corporation (NYSE: GM), also known as GM, is an American automobile maker with worldwide operations and brands including Buick, Cadillac, Chevrolet, GMC, Holden, Hummer, Opel, Pontiac, Saturn, Saab and Vauxhall. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ...

In the USA there are currently 1,522 stations distributing ethanol, although most stations are in the corn belt area.^[57]^[58] One of the debated methods for distribution in the US is using existing oil pipelines,^[59] which raises concerns over corrosion. An elevated section of the Alaska Pipeline Pipeline transport is a transportation of goods through a tube. ...

The production of fuel ethanol from corn in the United States is controversial for a few reasons. Production of ethanol from corn is 5 to 6 times less efficient than producing it from sugarcane. Ethanol production from corn is highly dependent upon subsidies and it consumes a food crop to produce fuel.^[32] The subsidies paid to fuel blenders and ethanol refineries have often been cited as the reason for driving up the price of corn, and in farmers planting more corn and the conversion of considerable land to corn (maize) production which generally consumes more fertilizers and pesticides than many other land uses.^[32] This is at odds with the subsidies actually paid directly to farmers that are designed to take corn land out of production and pay farmers to plant grass and idle the land, often in conjunction with soil conservation programs, in an attempt to boost corn prices. Recent developments with cellulosic ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of these concerns.^[60] Three phases of ethanol commercialization are emerging. ...

Europe

The consumption of bioethanol is largest in Europe in Germany, Sweden, France and Spain. Europe produces equivalent to 90% of its consumption (2006). Germany produced ca 70% of its consumption, Spain 60% and Sweden 50% (2006). In Sweden there are 792 E85 filling stations and in France 131 E85 service stations with 550 more under construction.^[57] The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Germany. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Spain. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Sweden. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Italy. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Poland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Hungary. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Lithuania. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Netherlands. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Latvia. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Finland. ... The neutrality of this article is disputed. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Germany. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Sweden. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Spain. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Poland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Netherlands. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Hungary. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Lithuania. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Finland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Ireland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Italy. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Latvia. ... Logo used in the United States for E85 fuel Not to be confused with European route E85, a motorway in Europe. ...

On Monday, September 17, 2007 the first ethanol fuel pump was opened in Reykjavik, Iceland. This pump is the only one of its kind in Iceland. The fuel is imported by Brimborg, a Volvo dealer, as a pilot to see how ethanol fueled cars work in Iceland. In a few weeks, the pump will be opened for public use.^{[citation needed]} is the 260th day of the year (261st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ...

In The Netherlands regular petrol with no bio-additives is slowly outphased, since EU-legislation has been passed that requires the fraction of nonmineral origin to become minimum 5,75% of the total fuel consumption volume in 2010. This can be realised by substitutions in diesel or in petrol of any biological source; or fuel sold in the form of pure biofuel. (2007:) There are only a few gas stations where E85 is sold, which is an 85% ethanol, 15% petrol mix.^[62] Directly neighbouring country Germany is reported to have a much better biofuel infrastructure and offers both E85 and E50. Biofuel is taxed equally as regular fuel. However, fuel tanked abroad cannot be taxed and a recent payment receipt will in most cases suffice to prevent fines if customs check tank contents. (Authorities are aware of high taxation on fuels and cross-border fuel refilling is a well-known practice.) Motto: Je Maintiendrai (Dutch: Ik zal handhaven, English: I Shall Uphold) Anthem: Wilhelmus van Nassouwe Capital Amsterdam1 Largest city Amsterdam Official language(s) Dutch2 Government Parliamentary democracy Constitutional monarchy - Queen Beatrix - Prime minister Jan Peter Balkenende Independence Eighty Years War - Declared July 26, 1581 - Recognised January 30, 1648 (by Spain...

All Swedish gas stations are required by an act of parliament to offer at least one alternative fuel, and every fifth car in Stockholm now drives at least partially on alternative fuels, mostly ethanol.^[63] The number of bioethanol stations in Europe is highest in Sweden, with 792 stations. BIL Sweden, the national association for the automobile industry, has stated that automakers in Sweden want to end oil dependency, and all Swedish gas stations are required by an act of parliament to offer at least one alternative fuel. ... The definition of alternative fuel varies according to the context of its usage. ...

Stockholm will introduce a fleet of Swedish-made electric hybrid buses in its public transport system on a trial basis in 2008. These buses will use ethanol-powered internal-combustion engines and electric motors. The vehicles’ diesel engines will use ethanol.^[64]

Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Sweden. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Germany. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Ireland. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Switzerland. ...

Asia and Oceania

China is promoting ethanol-based fuel on a pilot basis in five cities in its central and northeastern region, a move designed to create a new market for its surplus grain and reduce consumption of petroleum. The cities include Zhengzhou, Luoyang and Nanyang in central China's Henan province, and Harbin and Zhaodong in Heilongjiang province, northeast China. Under the program, Henan will promote ethanol-based fuel across the province by the end of this year. Officials say the move is of great importance in helping to stabilize grain prices, raise farmers' income and reducing petrol- induced air pollution.^[65] Not to be confused with the unrelated provinces of Hainan and Hunan Henan (Chinese: 河南; pinyin: Hénán; Wade-Giles: Ho-nan), is a province of the Peoples Republic of China, located in the central part of the country. ... Heilongjiang (Simplified Chinese: 黑龙江省; Traditional Chinese: 黑龍江省; pinyin: Hēilóngjiāng; Postal System Pinyin: Heilungkiang) is a province of the Peoples Republic of China located in the northeastern part of the country. ...

Legislation in Australia imposes a 10% cap on the concentration of fuel ethanol blends. Blends of 90% unleaded petrol and 10% fuel ethanol are commonly referred to as E10. E10 is available through service stations operating under the BP, Caltex, Shell and United brands as well as those of a number of smaller independents. Not surprisingly, E10 is most widely available closer to the sources of production in Queensland and New South Wales. E10 is most commonly blended with 91 RON "regular unleaded" fuel. There is a requirement that retailers label blends containing fuel ethanol on the dispenser. In Australia, ethanol fuel is produced from sugar cane and various other agricultural sources, as a source of fuel. ...

Central America and the Caribbean

All countries in Central America and the Caribbean are located in a tropical zone with suitable climate for growing sugar cane. In fact, most of these countries have a long tradition of growing sugar cane mainly for producing sugar and alcoholic beverages. As a result of the guerilla movements in Central America, in 1983 the United States unilateral and temporarily approved the Caribbean Basin Initiative, allowing most countries in the region to benefit from several tariff and trade benefits. These benefits were made permanent in 1990 and more recently, these benefits were replaced by the Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act, approved in 2000, and the Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement that went to effect in 2008. All these agreements have allowed several countries in the region to export ethanol to the U.S free of tariffs.^[48] Until 2004, the countries that benefited the most were Jamaica and Costa Rica, but as the U.S. began demanding more fuel ethanol, the two countries increased their exports and two others began exporting. In 2007, Jamaica, El Salvador, Trinidad & Tobago and Costa Rica exported together to the U.S. a total of 230.5 million gallons of ethanol, representing 54.1% of U.S. fuel ethanol imports. Brasil began exporting ethanol to the U.S. in 2004 and exported 188.8 million gallons representing 44.3% of U.S. ethanol imports in 2007. The remaing imports that year came from Canada and China.^[33] Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Brazil. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Jamaica. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_El_Salvador. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Costa_Rica. ... For other uses, see Central America (disambiguation). ... West Indies redirects here. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... This article is about sugar as food and as an important and widely-traded commodity. ... Alcoholic beverages An alcoholic beverage is a drink containing ethanol, commonly known as alcohol, although in chemistry the definition of an alcohol includes many other compounds. ... Guerrilla (also called a partisan) is a term borrowed from Spanish (from guerra meaning war) used to describe small combat groups. ... Unilateralism is an antonym for multilateralism. ... U.S. unilateral initiative originated in the 1983 Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act. It aimed at providing several tariff and trade benefits to Central American and caribbean countries. ... The Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA) is a law adopted by the U.S. Government in October 2000 to delineate enhanced trade preferences and eligibility requirements for the 24 beneficiary countries of the Caribbean Basin region. ... Presidents Francisco Flores PÃ©rez (former), Ricardo Maduro (former), George W. Bush, Abel Pacheco (former), Enrique BolaÃ±os (former) and Alfonso Portillo (former) The Dominican Republicâ€“Central America Free Trade Agreement, commonly called DR-CAFTA, is a free trade agreement (legally a treaty under international law, but not under US... Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... For other uses, see Brazil (disambiguation). ...

In March 2007, "ethanol diplomacy" was the focus of President George W. Bush's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil's president, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, were seeking to promote the production and use of sugar cane based ethanol throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. The two countries also agreed to share technology and set international standards for biofuels.^[44] The Brazilian sugar cane technology transfer would allow several Central American, Caribbean and Andean countries to take advantage of their tariff-free trade agreements to increase or become exporters to the United States in the short-term.^[66] Also, in August 2007, Brazil's President toured Mexico and several countries in Central America and the Caribbean to promote Brazilian ethanol technology.^[67] The ethanol alliance between the U.S. and Brazil generated some negative reactions from Venezuela's President Hugo Chavez,^[68] and by then Cuba's President, Fidel Castro, who wrote that "you will see how many people among the hungry masses of our planet will no longer consume corn." "Or even worse," he continued, "by offering financing to poor countries to produce ethanol from corn or any other kind of food, no tree will be left to defend humanity from climate change."'^[69] Daniel Ortega, Nicaragua's President, and one of the preferencial recipients of Brazilian technical aid also voiced critics to the Bush plan, but he vowed support for sugar cane based ethanol during Lula's visit to Nicaragua.^[70]^[71] George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is the forty-third and current President of the United States of America, originally inaugurated on January 20, 2001. ... Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (born October 6, 1945) is a left-wing Brazilian politician. ... Latin America consists of the countries of South America and some of North America (including Central America and some the islands of the Caribbean) whose inhabitants mostly speak Romance languages, although Native American languages are also spoken. ... West Indies redirects here. ... Central America is the region of North America located between the southern border of Mexico and the northwest border of Colombia, in South America. ... West Indies redirects here. ... â€¢ â€¢ Seat of Secretariat Lima, Peru Official language Spanish Type Trade bloc Membership 10 South American states 2 Central/North American observer states Leaders - Secretary General Freddy Ehlers Establishment - as the Andean Pact 1969 - as the CAN 1996 Website http://www. ... President Hugo Chávez Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (born July 28, 1954) has been the President of Venezuela since 1999. ... Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born on August 13, 1926) is the current President of Cuba but on indefinite medical hiatus. ... JosÃ© Daniel Ortega Saavedra (born 11 November 1945) is the current President of Nicaragua. ... Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (born October 6, 1945) is a left-wing Brazilian politician. ...

Comparison between Brazil and the U.S.

Brazil's sugar cane-based industry is far more efficient than the U.S. corn-based industry. Brazilian distillers are able to produce ethanol for 22 cents per liter, compared with the 30 cents per liter for corn-based ethanol.^[72] Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 600 mm (24 in) of annual rainfall. Sugarcane is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom, able to convert up to 2% of incident solar energy into biomass. Ethanol is produced by yeast fermentation of the sugar extracted from sugar cane. Sugarcane production in the United States occurs in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii, and Texas. In prime growing regions, such as Hawaii, sugarcane can produce 20 kg for each square meter exposed to the sun.

U.S. corn-derived ethanol costs 30% more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before being distilled into alcohol. Unfortunately, despite this cost differential in production, in contrast to Japan and Sweden, the U.S. does not import much of Brazilian ethanol because of U.S. trade barriers corresponding to a tariff of 54-cent per gallon – a levy designed to offset the 51-cent per gallon blender's federal tax credit that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin.^[73] Tax rates around the world Tax revenue as % of GDP Economic policy Monetary policy Central bank Money supply Fiscal policy Spending Deficit Debt Trade policy Tariff Trade agreement Finance Financial market Financial market participants Corporate Personal Public Banking Regulation For other uses of this word, see tariff (disambiguation). ...

Image File history File links Flag_of_Brazil. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... For other uses of terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation), and United States (disambiguation) Motto In God We Trust(since 1956) (From Many, One; Latin, traditional) Anthem The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City National language English (de facto)1 Demonym American... In agriculture, a cash crop is a crop which is grown for money. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... A hectare (symbol ha) is a metric unit of surface area, equal to 100 ares (the name is a contraction of the SI prefix hecto + are). ... A hectare (symbol ha) is a metric unit of surface area, equal to 100 ares (the name is a contraction of the SI prefix hecto + are). ... The liter (spelled liter in American English and litre in Commonwealth English) is a unit of volume. ... A hectare (symbol ha) is a unit of area, equal to 10 000 square metres, commonly used for measuring land area. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric CO2 levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ... The gallon (abbreviation: gal) is a unit of volume. ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 120th day of the year (121st in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States. ... For other uses, see Alaska (disambiguation). ...

Environment

Energy balance

All biomass goes through at least some of these steps: it needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented, and burned. All of these steps require resources and an infrastructure. The total amount of energy input into the process compared to the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel is known as the energy balance. Figures compiled in a 2007 by National Geographic Magazine^[32] point to modest results for corn ethanol produced in the US: one unit of fossil-fuel energy is required to create 1.3 energy units from the resulting ethanol. The energy balance for sugarcane ethanol produced in Brazil is more favorable, 1:8. Energy balance estimates are not easily produced, thus numerous such reports have been generated that are contradictory. For instance, a separate survey reports that production of ethanol from sugarcane, which requires a tropical climate to grow productively, returns from 8 to 9 units of energy for each unit expended, as compared to corn which only returns about 1.34 units of fuel energy for each unit of energy expended.^[76] This article needs additional references or sources for verification. ... The National Geographic Magazine, later shortened to National Geographic, is the official journal of the National Geographic Society. ...

Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is emitted during fermentation and combustion. However, this is canceled out by the greater uptake of carbon dioxide by the plants as they grow to produce the biomass.^[77] When compared to gasoline, depending on the production method, ethanol releases less greenhouse gases.^[78]^[79] Carbon dioxide (chemical formula: ) is a chemical compound composed of two oxygen atoms covalently bonded to a single carbon atom. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ... Top: Increasing atmospheric levels as measured in the atmosphere and ice cores. ...

Air pollution

Compared with conventional unleaded gasoline, ethanol is a particulate-free burning fuel source that combusts cleanly with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. Gasoline produces 2.44 CO2 equivalent kg/l and ethanol 1.94 (this is -21% CO2). The Clean Air Act requires the addition of oxygenates to reduce carbon monoxide emissions in the United States. The additive MTBE is currently being phased out due to ground water contamination, hence ethanol becomes an attractive alternative additive. Current production methods includes air pollution from the manufacturer of macronutrient fertilizers such as ammonia. Gasoline, as it is known in North America, or petrol, in many Commonwealth countries (sometimes also called motor spirit) is a petroleum-derived liquid mixture consisting primarily of hydrocarbons, used as fuel in internal combustion engines. ... Carbon dioxide equivalent or CO2e, is an internationally accepted measure that encapsulates all GHGs (greenhouse gases) that contribute to global warming (e. ... Smog over Shanghai. ... Oxygenated substances have been infused with oxygen. ... MTBE is highly flammable and is widely used as an oxygenate. ... Spreading manure, an organic fertilizer Fertilizers (also spelled fertilisers) are compounds given to plants to promote growth; they are usually applied either through the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar feeding, for uptake through leaves. ...

A study by atmospheric scientists at Stanford University found that E85 fuel would increase the risk of air pollution deaths relative to gasoline.^[80] Ozone levels are significantly increased, thereby increasing photochemical smog and aggravating medical problems such as asthma.^[81]^[82] For other uses, see Ozone (disambiguation). ...

Manufacture

In 2002, monitoring of ethanol plants revealed that they released VOCs (volatile organic compounds) at a higher rate than had previously been disclosed.^[83] The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) subsequently reached settlement with Archer Daniels Midland and Cargill, two of the largest producers of ethanol, to reduce emission of these VOCs. VOCs are produced when fermented corn mash is dried for sale as a supplement for livestock feed. Devices known as thermal oxidizers or catalytic oxidizers can be attached to the plants to burn off the hazardous gases. Smog causing pollutants are also increased by using ethanol fuel in comparison to gasoline.^{[citation needed]} EPA redirects here. ... The Archer Daniels Midland Company (NYSE: ADM), based in Decatur, Illinois, operates more than 270 plants worldwide, where cereal grains and oilseeds are processed into numerous products used in food, beverage, nutraceutical, industrial and animal feed markets worldwide. ... For other uses, see Cargill (disambiguation). ...

Carbon Dioxide

The calculation of exactly how much Carbon Dioxide is produced in the manufacture of bioethanol is a complex and inexact process, and is highly dependant on the method by which the ethanol is produced and the assumptions made in the calculation. A calculation should include: Carbon intensity is the ratio of carbon emissions to economic activity or some other activity. ... Carbon intensity is the ratio of carbon emissions to economic activity or some other activity. ... Fossil fuels are hydrocarbon-containing natural resources such as coal, petroleum and natural gas. ...

The graph on the right shows figures calculated by the UK government for the purposes of the Renewable transport fuel obligation.^[84] Petrol and alcohol fuel pumps in Brazil. ...

The January 2006 Science article from UC Berkeley's ERG, estimated reduction from corn ethanol in GHG to be 13% after reviewing a large number of studies. However, in a correction to that article released shortly after publication, they reduce the estimated value to 7.4%. A National Geographic Magazine overview article (2007)^[32] puts the figures at 22% less CO₂ emissions in production and use for corn ethanol compared to gasoline and a 56% reduction for cane ethanol. Carmaker Ford reports a 70% reduction in CO₂ emissions with bioethanol compared to petrol for one of their flexible-fuel vehicles.^[85] The National Geographic Magazine, later shortened to National Geographic, is the official journal of the National Geographic Society. ... For other types of Hybrid Transportation, see Hybrid (disambiguation)#Transportation. ...

An additional complication is that production requires tilling new soil^[86] which produces a one-off release of GHG that it can take decades or centuries of production reductions in GHG emissions to equalize.^[87] As an example, converting grass lands to corn production for ethanol takes about a century of annual savings to make up for the GHG released from the initial tilling.^[88]

Change in land use

Large-scale farming is necessary to produce agricultural alcohol and this requires substantial amounts of cultivated land. University of Minnesota researchers report that if all corn grown in the U.S. were used to make ethanol it would displace 12% of current U.S. gasoline consumption.^[89] There are claims that land for ethanol production is acquired through deforestation, while others have observed that areas currently supporting forests are usually not suitable for growing crops.^[90]^[91] In any case, farming may involve a decline in soil fertility due to reduction of organic matter,^[92] a decrease in water availability and quality, an increase in the use of pesticides and fertilizers, and potential dislocation of local communities.^[93] However, new technology enables farmers and processors to increasingly produce the same output using less inputs.^[89]

There is a concern that as demand for ethanol fuel increases, food crops are replaced by fuel crops, driving food supply down and food prices up. Growing demand for ethanol in the United States has been discussed as a factor in the increased corn prices in Mexico.^[94] Average barley prices in the United States rose 17% from January to June 2007 to the highest in 11 years. However, some commentators suggest that recent food price increases mainly reflect high oil prices in recent years, not specific pressures associated with ethanol production.^[95]

Cellulosic ethanol production is a new approach which may alleviate land use and related concerns. Cellulosic ethanol can be produced from any plant material, potentially doubling yields, in an effort to minimize conflict between food needs versus fuel needs. Instead of utilizing only the starch by-products from grinding wheat and other crops, cellulosic ethanol production maximizes the use of all plant materials, including gluten. This approach would have a smaller carbon footprint because the amount of energy-intensive fertilisers and fungicides remain the same for higher output of usable material. The technology for producing cellulosic ethanol is currently in the commercialization stage.^[96]^[97] Cellulosic ethanol (also called lignocellulosic ethanol/ ceetoh and ceetol) is a type of biofuel produced from lignocellulose, a structural material that comprises much of the mass of plants. ... Per capita greenhouse gas emissions A carbon footprint is a measure of the impact human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of green house gases produced, measured in units of carbon dioxide.[1] It is meant to be useful for individuals and organizations to conceptualize their... Three phases of ethanol commercialization are emerging. ...

Many analysts suggest that, whichever ethanol fuel production strategy is used, fuel conservation efforts are also needed to make a large impact on reducing petroleum fuel use.^[98]

Efficiency of common crops

As ethanol yields improve or different feedstocks are introduced, ethanol production may become more economically feasible in the US. Currently, research on improving ethanol yields from each unit of corn is underway using biotechnology. Also, as long as oil prices remain high, the economical use of other feedstocks, such as cellulose, become viable. By-products such as straw or wood chips can be converted to ethanol. Fast growing species like switchgrass can be grown on land not suitable for other cash crops and yield high levels of ethanol per unit area.^[32] Cellulose as polymer of Î²-D-glucose Cellulose in 3D Cellulose (C6H10O5)n is a polysaccharide of beta-glucose. ... Binomial name L. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a warm season grass and is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie. ...

Species See text. ... Binomial name L. Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) is a warm season grass and is one of the dominant species of the central North American tallgrass prairie. ... This article is about woody plants of the genus Populus. ... Species Ref: ITIS 42058 as of 2004-05-05 Sugarcane is one of six species of a tall tropical southeast Asian grass (Family Poaceae) having stout fibrous jointed stalks whose sap at one time was the primary source of sugar. ... A jar of sweet sorghum Madhura sweet sorghum syrup sold in India Sweet sorghum is any of the many varieties of sorghum, a cane-like plant with a high sugar content. ... This article is about the maize plant. ... is the 341st day of the year (342nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2006 (MMVI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Reduced petroleum import

One rationale given for extensive ethanol production in the U.S. is its benefit to energy security, by shifting the need for some foreign-produced oil to domestically-produced energy sources.^[103] Production of ethanol requires significant energy, but current U.S. production derives most of that energy from coal, natural gas and other sources, rather than oil.^[104] Because 66% of oil consumed in the U.S. is imported, compared to a net surplus of coal and just 16% of natural gas (2006 figures),^[105] the displacement of oil-based fuels to ethanol produces a net shift from foreign to domestic U.S. energy sources. Energy security, or security of supply, is a key component of energy policy in many countries. ...

Recent patents

In 2006-2-23, Veridium Corporation announced the technology to convert exhaust carbon dioxide from the fermentation stage of ethanol production facilities back into new ethanol and biodiesel. The bioreactor process is based on a new strain of iron-loving blue-green algae discovered thriving in a hot stream at Yellowstone National Park.^[106] Yellowstone redirects here. ...

In 2006-11-14, US Patent Office approved Patent 7135308, a process for the production of ethanol by harvesting starch-accumulating filament-forming or colony-forming algae to form a biomass, initiating cellular decay of the biomass in a dark and anaerobic environment, fermenting the biomass in the presence of a yeast, and the isolating the ethanol produced.^[107]

Criticism and controversy

In 2007, biofuels consumed one third of America's corn (maize) harvest. Filling up one large vehicle fuel tank one time with 100% ethanol uses enough corn to feed one person for a year. Thirty million tons of U.S. corn going to ethanol in 2007 greatly reduces the world's overall supply of grain.^[108] However, 31% of the corn put into the process comes out as distiller's grain, or DDGS, which is very high in protein, and is used to feed livestock.^[109]

Jean Ziegler, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, called for a five-year moratorium on biofuel production to halt the increasing catastrophe for the poor. He proclaimed that the rising practice of converting food crops into biofuel is "A Crime Against Humanity," saying it is creating food shortages and price jumps that cause millions of poor people to go hungry.^[110] Jean Ziegler Jean Ziegler (born April 19, 1934) is the UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food and a senior professor of sociology at the University of Geneva and the Sorbonne, Paris. ... Special Rapporteur is a title given to individuals working on behalf of the United Nations who bear a specific mandate from the former UN Commission on Human Rights to investigate, monitor and recommend solutions to human rights problems. ...

The European Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warns that “the current push to expand the use of biofuels is creating unsustainable tensions that will disrupt markets without generating significant environmental benefits.”^[111]

When all 200 American ethanol subsidies are considered, they cost about $7 billion USD per year (equal to roughly $1.90 USD total for each a gallon of ethanol).^[112] When the price of one agricultural commodity increases, farmers are motivated to quickly shift finite land and water resources to it, away from traditional food crops.^[113]

The 2007-12-19 U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 requires American “fuel producers to use at least 36 billion gallons of biofuel in 2022. This is nearly a fivefold increase over current levels.”^[114]

When cellulosic ethanol is produced from feedstock like switchgrass and sawgrass, the nutrients required to grow the cellulose are removed and cannot decay and replenish the soil. The soil is of poorer quality, and unsustainable soil erosion occurs.

Ethanol production consumes large quantities of unsustainable petroleum and natural gas. Even with the most-optimistic energy return on investment claims, in order to use 100% solar energy to grow corn and produce ethanol (fueling farm-and-transportation machinery with ethanol, distilling with heat from burning crop residues, using NO fossil fuels), the consumption of ethanol to replace current U.S. petroleum use alone would require about 75% of all cultivated land on the face of the Earth, with no ethanol for other countries, or sufficient food for humans and animals.^[115] In finance, the return on investment (ROI) or just return is a calculation used to determine whether a proposed investment is wise, and how well it will repay the investor. ... The Solar Two 10 MW solar power facility, showing the power tower (left) surrounded by the sun-tracking mirrors. ...

Fuel system problems

Several of the outstanding ethanol fuel issues are linked specifically to fuel systems. Fuels with more than 10% ethanol are not compatible with non E85-ready fuel system components and may cause corrosion of ferrous components.^[116]^[117] Ethanol fuel can negatively affect electric fuel pumps by increasing internal wear,^[117] cause undesirable spark generation,^[118] and is not compatible with capacitance fuel level gauging indicators and may cause erroneous fuel quantity indications in vehicles that employ that system.^[119] It is also not always compatible with marine craft, especially those that use fiberglass fuel tanks.^[120]^[121] For the hazard, see corrosive. ... General Name, symbol, number iron, Fe, 26 Chemical series transition metals Group, period, block 8, 4, d Appearance lustrous metallic with a grayish tinge Standard atomic weight 55. ... Capacitance is a measure of the amount of electric charge stored (or separated) for a given electric potential. ...

Using 100% ethanol fuel decreases fuel-economy by 15-30% over using 100% gasoline; this can be avoided using certain modifications that would, however, render the engine inoperable on regular petrol without the addition of an adjustable ECU.^[122] Tough materials are needed to accommodate a higher compression ratio to make an ethanol engine as efficient as it would be on petrol; these would be similar to those used in diesel engines which typically run at a CR of 20:1,^[123] versus about 8-12:1 for petrol engines.^[124] An engine control unit (ECU) is an electronic control unit which controls various aspects of an internal combustion engines operation. ...

In April 2008 the German environmental minister cancelled a proposed 10% ethanol fuel scheme citing technical problems: too many older cars in Germany are unequipped to handle this fuel. Ethanol levels in fuel will remain at 5%.^[125]

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A Portland Tribune news stand The Portland Tribune is a free newspaper published twice weekly (Tuesdays and Fridays) in Portland, Oregon. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Reuters Group plc (LSE: RTR and NASDAQ: RTRSY); pronounced is known as a financial market data provider and a news service that provides reports from around the world to newspapers and broadcasters. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 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Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 221st day of the year (222nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 118th day of the year (119th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 221st day of the year (222nd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 118th day of the year (119th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 129th day of the year (130th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 38th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 129th day of the year (130th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... G. David Tilman (formerly Titman) is a prominent American ecologist. ... This article is about the oldest and largest campus of the University of Minnesota. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... For other uses, see BBC (disambiguation). ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Associated Press, or AP, is an American news agency, the worlds largest such organization. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 136th day of the year (137th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 99th day of the year (100th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 119th day of the year (120th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Year 2007 (MMVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. ... is the 119th day of the year (120th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... The Honolulu Advertiser is the largest newspaper in the U.S. state of Hawaiâ€˜i and has a morning circulation of 143,983 and a Sunday edition of 165,481 copies. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... PDF is an abbreviation with several meanings: Portable Document Format Post-doctoral fellowship Probability density function There also is an electronic design automation company named PDF Solutions. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... 2008 (MMVIII) is the current year, a leap year that started on Tuesday of the Anno Domini (or common era), in accordance to the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 14th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ... Die Welt is a German national daily newspaper published by the Axel Springer company. ...

Contents

Chemistry

Sources

Production process

Fermentation

Distillation

Dehydration

Technology

Ethanol-based engines

Ethanol fuel mixtures

Fuel economy

Experience by country

Brazil

United States

Europe

Asia and Oceania

Central America and the Caribbean

Comparison between Brazil and the U.S.

Environment

Energy balance

Air pollution

Manufacture

Carbon Dioxide

Change in land use

Efficiency of common crops

Reduced petroleum import

Recent patents

Criticism and controversy

Fuel system problems

Bibliography

References

See also

External links

Contents

Chemistry GA_googleFillSlot("encyclopedia_square");

Sources

Production process

Fermentation

Distillation

Dehydration

Technology

Ethanol-based engines

Ethanol fuel mixtures

Fuel economy

Experience by country

Brazil

United States

Europe

Asia and Oceania

Central America and the Caribbean

Comparison between Brazil and the U.S.

Environment

Energy balance

Air pollution

Manufacture

Carbon Dioxide

Change in land use

Efficiency of common crops

Reduced petroleum import

Recent patents

Criticism and controversy

Fuel system problems

Bibliography

References

See also

External links

Chemistry