The ethical aspects of abortion are much discussed in all major philosophies and religions in the world, particularly (but not exclusively) in the Christian religion. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Christianity. ...

Main ethical issues in abortion

Rights of the woman compared to rights of the fetus

The feminist Beverly Harrison once said, "...the wellbeing of the woman and the value of her life plan should always be recognised as of intrinsic nature". ^{[citation needed]} Some would argue that a woman should have the right to control her own body. Therefore, she would be under no moral obligation to give birth, and should have self-determination in all reproductive matters. Feminism is a diverse collection of social theories, political movements and moral philosophies, largely motivated by or concerned with the experiences of women. ... With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual, and contrasts with soul, personality and behavior. ... The term moral obligation has a number of meanings in moral philosophy, in religion, and in laymans terms. ... Birth is the process in animals by which an offspring is expelled from the body of its mother. ... Self-determination is a principle in international law that a people ought to be able to determine their own governmental forms and structure free from outside influence. ... Reproduction is the creation of one thing as a copy of, product of, or replacement for a similar thing, e. ...

Judith Jarvis Thomson, in her 1971 paper A Defense of Abortion, assumed for the sake of argument that personhood begins at conception. She went on to argue that the pregnant woman is under no moral compulsion to support a fetus against her desire, using an analogy in which the reader is asked to imagine awakening to find that they are being used as a living dialysis machine for a violinist who has suffered renal failure. Ultimately, Jarvis Thomson concludes, the right to consent outweighs the right to life in both cases. ^[1] Judith Jarvis Thomson (born 1929) is an American moral philosopher and metaphysician. ... 1971 (MCMLXXI) was a common year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1971 calendar). ... A Defense of Abortion is a moral philosophical paper by Judith Jarvis Thomson first published in 1971. ... A person is defined by philosophers as a being who is in possession of a range of psychological capacities that are regarded as both necessary and sufficient to fulfill the requirements of personhood. ... A spermatozoon fertilising an ovum Fertilisation, also spelled fertilization (also known as conception, fecundation and syngamy), is fusion of gametes to form a new organism of the same species. ... Fetus at eight weeks For other uses, see Fetus (disambiguation). ... Analogy is either the cognitive process of transferring information from a particular subject (the analogue or source) to another particular subject (the target), or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. ... In philosophy, physics, and other fields, a thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is an attempt to solve a problem using the power of human imagination. ... In medicine, dialysis is a type of renal replacement therapy which is used to provide an artificial replacement for lost kidney function due to renal failure. ... A violinist is an instrumentalist who plays the violin. ... Renal failure is the condition where the kidneys fail to function properly. ... Consent (as a term of jurisprudence) is a possible justification against civil or criminal liability. ... The term right to life is a political term used in controversies over various issues that involve the taking of a life (or what is perceived to be a life). ...

On the other hand, one who is pro-life might argue that the sanctity of life extends to all humans. The right to life of the fetus would thus overrule the woman's right to choose abortion since abortion would be equivalent to murder. It is also argued that the right to life is an inalienable right that logically supersedes all other rights. It has been suggested that Anti-abortion movement be merged into this article or section. ... The phrase Sanctity of life refers to the idea that life is sacred, mostly used by the pro-life side in the political and moral debates over abortion in the United States and the United Kingdom. ... Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin for wise man or knowing man) under the family Hominidae (the great apes). ... The term inalienable rights (or unalienable rights) refers to a set of human rights that are absolute, not awarded by human power, not transferable to another power, and incapable of repudiation. ...

Question of personhood

Establishing the point in time when a zygote/embryo/fetus becomes a "person" is open to debate since the definition of "personhood" is not universally agreed upon.

Peter Singer argued that something can only be a person if it is self-aware and has temporal awareness. Therefore, abortion is morally acceptable, because a fetus does not meet this definition of personhood. Singer also concluded that infanticide would be permissible until the 3rd month after birth, because, at that point, self-awareness has still not been acquired. ^[2] Peter Albert David Singer (born July 6, 1946 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia) is an Australian Humanist and philosopher. ... A person is defined by philosophers as a being who is in possession of a range of psychological capacities that are regarded as both necessary and sufficient to fulfill the requirements of personhood. ... In biological psychology, awareness describes an animals perception and cognitive reaction to a condition or event. ... For alternate uses of time, see Time (disambiguation) or see TIME (magazine). ... Fetus at eight weeks For other uses, see Fetus (disambiguation). ... In sociology and biology, infanticide is the practice of intentionally causing the death of an infant of a given species, by members of the same species. ...

A religious individual, on the other hand, might argue that one becomes a person at the moment of ensoulment. The precise point at which this event occurs, however, varies depending upon the religion, sect, or theologians. Saint Thomas Aquinas placed the entrance of the soul into the body at 42 days into pregnancy for a male fetus and 90 days for a female. ^[3] Therefore, some have concluded that abortion would be permissible in the period before ensoulment. Ensoulment refers to the creation of a soul within a human being or other creature. ... A sect is generally a small religious or political group that has branched off from a larger established group. ... Theology (Greek θεος, theos, God, + λογος, logos, word or reason) means reasoned discourse concerning religion, spirituality and God. ... Saint Thomas Aquinas [Thomas of Aquin, or Aquino] (c. ... The soul, according to many religious and philosophical traditions, is a self aware ethereal substance particular to a unique living being. ... With regard to living things, a body is the integral physical material of an individual, and contrasts with soul, personality and behavior. ... Pregnant woman at 26-week gestation A pregnant woman near the end of her term Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more embryos or fetuses by female mammals, including humans, inside their bodies. ... The shield and spear of the Roman God Mars are often used to represent the male sex In heterogamous species, male is the sex of an organism, or of a part of an organism, which typically produces smaller, mobile gametes (spermatozoa) that are able to fertilise female gametes (ova). ... The mirror of the Roman Goddess Venus is often used to represent the female sex. ...

Paul Ramsey and Charles Curran asserted that abortion, before 14th day of pregnancy, was acceptable, because after this point the division of the zygote through the process of monozygotic twinning becomes impossible. ^{[4] [5] [6]} Current research suggests that fertilised embryos naturally fail to implant some 30% to 60% of the time.^[7] Of those that do implant, about 25% are miscarried in the first two to three weeks after pregnancy can be detected.^[8] Curran also suggested that the developing embryo should not be considered a person until its chance of survival to live birth was greater than one half. Rev. ... Fraternal twin boys in the tub The term twin most notably refers to two individuals (or one of two individuals) who have shared the same uterus (womb) and usually, but not necessarily, born on the same day. ... Miscarriage or spontaneous abortion is the natural or accidental termination of a pregnancy at a stage where the embryo or the fetus is incapable of surviving, generally defined at a gestation of prior to 20 weeks. ... One half is the irreducible fraction resulting from dividing one by two (½), or any number by its double; multiplication by one half is equivalent to division by two. ...

In 1988, the Anglican Archbishop of York, John Habgood, argued that personhood begins with cellular differentiation. ^{[citation needed]} 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... The term Anglican (from medieval Latin ecclesia Anglicana meaning the English church) is used to describe the people, institutions, and churches as well as the liturgical traditions and theological concepts developed by the established Church of England, the Anglican Communion and the Continuing Anglican Churches (a loosely affiliated group of... Arms of the Archbishop of York The Archbishop of York, Primate of England, is the metropolitan bishop of the Province of York, and is the junior of the two archbishops of the Church of England, after the Archbishop of Canterbury. ... The Right Reverend and Right Honorable John Stapylton Habgood, Baron Habgood (born 1927), was Bishop of Durham between 1973 - 1983, and Archbishop of York between 1983 - 1995. ... Embryonic stem cells differentiate into cells in various body organs. ...

The teaching of the Catholic Church holds that a human being's life begins at fertilization, and therefore abortion is always wrong. Because there are Biblical verses that can be interpreted to suggest that personhood begins at fertilization, this belief is generally held by other orthodox Abrahamic religions as well. The name Catholic Church can mean a visible organization that refers to itself as Catholic, or the invisible Christian Church, viz. ... Look up life, living in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... An Abrahamic religion (also referred to as desert monotheism) is any religion derived from an ancient Semitic tradition attributed to Abraham, a great patriarch described in the Torah, the Bible and the Quran. ...

Sanctity of human life

In 1982, the late John Paul II said, in a speech pertaining to embryonic experimentation, "I condemn in the most explicit and formal way, experimental manipulation of the human embryo, since the human being, from conception to death, cannot be exploited for any purpose whatsoever". ^{[citation needed]} Members of the Catholic Church, in general, believe that all human life is sacred, and, thus, that the deliberate taking of a human life is never a conscionable act. 1982 (MCMLXXXII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Official papal image of John Paul II. His Holiness Pope John Paul II, né Karol Józef Wojtyła (born May 18, 1920 in Wadowice, Poland), is the current Pope — the Bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic Church. ... The name Catholic Church can mean a visible organization that refers to itself as Catholic, or the invisible Christian Church, viz. ... In various religions, sacred (from Latin, sacrum, sacrifice) or holy, objects, places or concepts are believed by followers to be intimately connected with the supernatural, or divinity, and are thus greatly revered. ...

However, a reverse argument could be made, in which factors that would reduce the future quality of life for the fetus to what might be defined as an insufferable degree could also be seen as violation of the sanctity of life. The well-being or quality of life of a population is an important concern in economics and political science. ... Fetus at eight weeks For other uses, see Fetus (disambiguation). ... The phrase Sanctity of life refers to the idea that life is sacred, mostly used by the pro-life side in the political and moral debates over abortion in the United States and the United Kingdom. ...

If the pregnant woman's life is at risk, then, arguably, abortion could be viewed as the lesser of two evils. The Principle of Double Effect could thus be applied, as the intent of the abortion would be to preserve the life of the woman, and the death of the fetus would be a secondary consequence of this attempt. The lesser of two evils principle, also known simply as the lesser evil, is the idea that of two bad political choices, one is less bad than the other, and should be chosen over the one that is a greater threat. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Principle of double effect (temporary). ...

The Catholic Church accepts the Principle of Double Effect when the death of the fetus is a secondary effect of treating the mother. For example, chemotherapy for cancer treatment may cause a miscarriage, and surgical removal of an ectopic pregnancy results in the death of the embryo. However, direct abortion with a side effect beneficial to the mother violates the Principle of Double Effect — so abortion prior to chemotherapy, or Methotrexate for ectopic pregnancy, are not acceptable. Methotrexate (rINN) (IPA: ), abbreviated MTX and formerly known as amethopterin, is an antimetabolite drug used in treatment of cancer and autoimmune diseases. ...

Abortion from a utilitarian perspective

In the words of Jeremy Bentham, "The question is not can they reason nor can they talk, but can they suffer?" ^[9] Thus, under the ethical theory of utilitarianism, people must consider the happiness of all those involved; actions must be chosen which will result in the greatest amount of good for the highest number of people. Jeremy Bentham (IPA: or ) (February 15, 1748 O.S. (February 26, 1748 N.S.) – June 6, 1832) was an English jurist, philosopher, and legal and social reformer. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

From a more practical utilitarian perspective, abortion might be considered acceptable if performed within the period in which the fetus is incapable of experiencing pain, theorized to be around the 23rd week of gestation. ^[10] Mifepristone, the "abortion pill," could be considered a painless method; prostaglandin abortion, on the other hand, could not, as it causes painful contractions in the woman and aborts the fetus through asphyxiation.^{[citation needed]} Look up Pain in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Mifepristone is a synthetic steroid with anti-progestagenic and anti-glucocorticoid effects. ... Chemical structure of prostaglandin E1 (PGE1). ... In medicine (obstetrics), a contraction is a forceful motion of the uterus, generated by the release of oxytocin (quick labor) by the pituitary gland, culminating in childbirth. ... Asphyxia is a condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body. ...

Abortion and natural law

According to the theory of natural law, reproduction is acknowledged to be an inherent component of the natural human condition (e.g., fertilization, differentiation and birth are all a part of the natural human life span), and, thus, abortion is counter to this design. ^{[citation needed]} It has been suggested that Law of nature (precept) be merged into this article or section. ... Biological reproduction is the biological process by which new individual organisms are produced. ...

However, abortion can be seen as a furtherance of the human ability to reason. The aforementioned principle of double effect, in addition to proportionality, can also be used to justify abortion. ^[11] Reason is a term used in philosophy and other human sciences to refer to the faculty of the human mind that creates and operates with abstract concepts. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Principle of double effect (temporary). ... The word proportionality may have one of a number of meanings: In mathematics, proportionality is a mathematical relation between two quantities. ...

References

1. ^ Jarvis Thomson, Judith. (1971). A Defense of Abortion. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1 (1), p. 47. Retrieved April 28, 2006.
2. ^ Singer, P. (1976). Practical ethics, chap. 6. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
3. ^ Aquinas, Thomas. (1267). "Disputed Questions on the Soul" (Quaestiones disputatae de Anima).
4. ^ Ramsey, P. (1970). "Reference points in deciding about abortion," in T.J. Noonan (ed.), The Morality of Abortion: Legal and Historical Perspectives, pp. 60-100. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
5. ^ Curran, C.E., "Abortion: Contemporary debate in philosophical and religious ethics," in W.T. Reich (ed.), Encyclopedia of Bioethics 1, pp. 17-26. London: The Free Press.
6. ^ Prijić-Samaržija, Snježana. (2004). Embryo Experimentation and Sorites Paradoxes. Etica & Politica, 2. Retrieved April 28, 2006.
7. ^ Kennedy, T.G. Physiology of implantation. 10th World Congress on in vitro fertilisation and assisted reproduction. Vancouver, Canada, 24-28 May 1997.
8. ^ Wilcox AJ, Baird DD, Weinberg CR. Time of implantation of the conceptus and loss of pregnancy. New England Journal of Medicine. 1999;340(23):1796-1799. PMID 10362823.
9. ^ Palmer, M. (1991). Moral Problems, chap. 3. Cambridge: Lutterworth Press.
10. ^ Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. (1997). Fetal Awareness. Retrieved 2006-01-11.
11. ^ Moore, Michael. (1992). "Law as a Functional Kind," in Robert P. George (ed.), Natural Law Theories: Contemporary Essays. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

April 28 is the 118th day of the year (119th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 247 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... April 28 is the 118th day of the year (119th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 247 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ... January 11 is the 11th day of the year in the Gregorian calendar. ...

See also

• Bioethics
• Procreative liberty

Bioethics is the ethics of biological science and medicine. ... Procreative liberty is a term refering to the freedom to decide whether or not to have children as well as the freedom to control ones reproductive capacity. ...

External links

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Feminist Ethics
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Natural Law Tradition in Ethics