NationMaster - Encyclopedia: Ethnic segregation

Racial segregation is characterized by separation of people of different races in daily life when both are doing equal tasks, such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a rest room, attending school, going to the movies, or in the rental or purchase of a home^[1]. Segregation may be de jure (Latin, meaning "by law")—mandated by law—or de facto (also Latin, meaning "in fact"); de facto segregation may exist even illegally. De facto segregation may be maintained by means ranging from racial discrimination in hiring and in the rental and sale of housing to certain races to vigilante violence such as lynchings; a situation that arises when members of different races mutually prefer to associate and do business with members of their own race would usually be described as separation or de facto separation of the races rather than segregation. ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1632x1169, 664 KB) Ballet Theatre, Tambov. ... ImageMetadata File history File links Download high resolution version (1632x1169, 664 KB) Ballet Theatre, Tambov. ... This article concerns the term race as used in reference to human beings. ... Latin was the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ... An African-American drinks out of a water fountain marked for colored in 1939 at a street car terminal in Oklahoma City. ... A vigilante is someone who takes enforcement of law or moral code into his own hands. ... Lynching is a form of violence, usually murder, conceived of by its perpetrators as extra-legal punishment for offenders or as a terrorist method of enforcing social domination. ...

Both South Africa in the apartheid era and the United States—both during the slavery era (through 1865) and after the 1876 end of the Reconstruction that followed the American Civil War—passed laws requiring or permitting segregation of the races in daily life. The era of legal segregation in the United States was commonly referred to as the Jim Crow era, and the practice of segregation was referred to as Jim Crow. A segregated beach in South Africa, 1982. ... Slave sale in Easton, Maryland The history of slavery in the United States began soon after Europeans first settled in what became the United States. ... // Reconstruction was the process in US history that resolved the issues of the American Civil War when both the Confederacy and slavery in the United States were destroyed. ... Combatants United States of America (Union) Confederate States of America (Confederacy) Commanders Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee Strength 2,200,000 1,064,000 Casualties 110,000 killed in action, 360,000 total dead, 275,200 wounded 93,000 killed in action, 258,000 total... This article concerns the term race as used in reference to human beings. ... Jim Crow can refer to several subjects: James F. Crow, Professor Emeritus of Genetics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. ... Jim Crow can refer to several subjects: James F. Crow, Professor Emeritus of Genetics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. ...

In 1896, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld, in Plessy v. Ferguson, the right of U.S. states and localities to mandate racial segregation. In 1913, President Woodrow Wilson ordered the segregation of the federal Civil Service.In 1948, President Harry S. Truman ordered the desegregation of the U.S. military; in 1954 the Court, in Brown v. Board of Education, largely reversed Plessy; over the next twenty years, a succession of further court decisions and federal laws, including the Home Mortgage Disclosure Act and measure to end mortgage discrimination in 1975, would completely invalidate de jure racial segregation and discrimination in the U.S., although de facto segregation and discrimination have proven more resilient. The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court Building, Washington, D.C., (large image) The Supreme Court of the United States, located in Washington, D.C., is the highest court (see supreme court) in the United States; that is, it has ultimate judicial authority within the United States... Holding The separate but equal provision of public accommodations by state governments is constitutional under the Equal Protection Clause. ... Federal courts Supreme Court Chief Justice Associate Justices Elections Presidential elections Midterm elections Political Parties Democratic Republican Third parties State & Local government Governors Legislatures State Courts Counties, Cities, and Towns Other countries Politics Portal A state of the United States is any one of the fifty subnational entities of the... Thomas Woodrow Wilson was the 28th President of the United States. ... A civil servant or public servant is a civilian career public sector employee working for a government department or agency. ... Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884â€“December 26, 1972) was the thirty-third President of the United States (1945â€“1953); as Vice President, he succeeded to the office upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt. ... Desegregation is the process of ending racial segregation, most commonly used in reference to the United States. ... Holding Segregation of students in public schools violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, because separate facilities are inherently unequal. ... The Home Mortgage Disclosure Act (or HMDA) was passed in 1975. ... Mortgage Discrimination or Mortgage Lending Discrimination is the practice of banks, governments or other lending institutions denying loans to to one or more groups of people primarily on the basis of race, ethnic origin, sex or religion. ...

De jure segregation in both South Africa and the U.S. came with "miscegenation laws" (prohibitions against interracial marriage) and laws against hiring people of the race that is the object of discrimination in any but menial positions. Segregation in hiring practices contributed to economic imbalance between the races. Segregation, however, often allowed close contact in hierarchical situations, such as allowing a person of one race to work as a servant for a member of another race. Segregation can involve spatial separation of the races, and/or mandatory use of different institutions, such as schools and hospitals by people of different races. It has been suggested that Anti-miscegenation laws be merged into this article or section. ... A Black-White couple enjoying a moment during their wedding on the beach. ... Differences in national income equality around the world as measured by the national Gini coefficient. ... Social hierarchy, a multi-tiered pyramid-like social or functional structure having an apex as the centralization of power. ... The word space has many meanings, including: Physics The definition of space in physics is contentious. ... Students in Rome, Italy. ...

1 Overview
2 Historical cases
3 Current history
4 Sociological research (Brown v. Board)
5 See also
6 Notes and references
7 External links

Overview

Part of a series of articles on


Isolationism White Australia Policy South African Apartheid The Rex Theatre for Colored People, Leland, Mississippi, June 1937 Racial segregation is characterized by separation of people of different races in daily life when both are doing equal tasks, such as eating in a restaurant, drinking from a water fountain, using a rest room, attending school, going to the... Isolationism is a foreign policy which combines a non-interventionist military and a political policy of economic nationalism (protectionism). ... This badge from 1906 shows the use of the expression White Australia at that time The White Australia Policy is the prevailing term used to describe a collection of racist Australian policies which restricted non-white immigration and promoted white, European immigration from 1830 to 1973 with related policies enduring... Petty apartheid: sign on Durban beach in English, Afrikaans and Zulu (1989) Apartheid (literally separateness in Afrikaans) was a system of racial segregation that was enforced in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. ... Segregation in the US Black Codes Jim Crow laws Redlining White flight Sundown towns Proposition 14 Indian Appropriations Immigration Act of 1924 Separate but equal To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The Black Codes were laws passed on the state and local level in the United States to restrict the civil rights and civil liberties of African Americans, particularly former slaves. ... The Jim Crow Laws were state and local laws enacted in the Southern and Border States of the United States and enforced between 1876 and 1965 and affected African Americans and many other races. ... Redlining is the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking or insurance, to residents of certain areas. ... White flight is a colloquial term for the demographic trend of upper and middle class Americans (predominantly white) moving away from inner cities (predominantly non-white), finding new homes in nearby suburbs or even moving to new locales entirely. ... A sundown town is a community in the United States where non-Caucasiansâ€” especially African Americansâ€” are systematically excluded from living in or passing through after the sun went down. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Please wikify (format) this article as suggested in the Guide to layout and the Manual of Style. ... President Coolidge signs the immigration act on the White House South Lawn along with appropriation bills for the Veterans Bureau. ... Separate but equal was a policy enacted into law throughout the U.S. Southern states during the period of segregation, in which African Americans and Americans of European descent would receive the same services (schools, hospitals, water fountains, bathrooms, etc. ... This box: view • talk • edit

Even though many societies throughout history have practiced racial segregation, it was by no means universal, and some multiracial societies such as the Roman Empire were notable for their rejection of racial segregation. Few modern societies officially practice racial segregation, and most officially frown upon racial discrimination. However, anxieties about racial, religious and cultural differences still find expression in other forms of political and social controversy, either as an official pretext for culturally accepted discrimination, or as a socially acceptable way to discuss cultural, religious and economic friction that results from racial discrimination. For example, immigration controversies often mask concerns about the culture or racial composition of the immigrants. Issues of race relations also appear in seemingly race-neutral disputes, over such issues as poverty, healthcare, taxation, religion, enforcement of a particular set of cultural norms, and even fashion. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Racial segregation differs from racial discrimination in a number of ways. Discrimination ranges from individual actions, to socially enforced discriminatory behavior, to legally mandated differences in status between members of different races. Segregation has, typically, harshly reinforced discrimination: if people of different races live in separate neighborhoods, attend different schools, receive different social services, etc., then people of the favored races can be largely insulated from societal neglect of people of other races.

Historical cases

Australia (20th century)

From Australian federation (1901) up to the 1970s, what became known as the "White Australia Policy" officially discriminated against those who were not white and prevented them from immigrating to Australia, by deliberately making their immigration tests too hard to pass. The history of this form of racial discrimination is described in a government fact sheet.^[2] The various government laws and acts that made up the Policy were amended or replaced over a course of twenty or so years, from the mid-fifties to the mid-seventies. See White Australia Policy. The federation of Australia was the process by which the six separate British colonies of New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia formed a federation. ... This badge from 1906 shows the use of the expression White Australia at that time The White Australia Policy is the prevailing term used to describe a collection of racist Australian policies which restricted non-white immigration and promoted white, European immigration from 1830 to 1973 with related policies enduring... This badge from 1906 shows the use of the expression White Australia at that time The White Australia Policy is the prevailing term used to describe a collection of racist Australian policies which restricted non-white immigration and promoted white, European immigration from 1830 to 1973 with related policies enduring...

In the past, it was policy for Aborigines to be taken to live on missions, the intention being for them to be "out of the way" for the expanding territory of the white settlers. In the early-to-mid 20th Century the official policy regarding half-Aboriginal children was one of assimilation: they would be brought up on the missions to become part of white society and made to marry only white people, the intention being to "breed out" the Aboriginal traits by the third generation or so. Around the 1960s, the official policy regarding all indigenous Australians was changed to one of integration: being able to live either in Western society, on missions or in traditional society. Indigenous Australians are the first human inhabitants of the Australian continent and its nearby islands. ...

Despite the official stance being integration, a large percentage of indigenous Australians live away from the urban areas in comparatively poor socio-economic conditions, leaving them somewhat segregated from the rest of Australian society. A number of commentators and civil rights groups have characterised the situation as apartheid^[3]^[4]^[5] - in fact, Australia's government policies are viewed by some as the original impetus for the apartheid system in South Africa.^[6]^[7]^[8]

Nazi Germany (20th century)

An example of miscegenation laws was the Nuremberg Laws enacted by the Nazis in Germany against the large German Jewish community during the 1930s. The laws prohibited marriages between Jews (deemed as Untermenschen - "sub-humans") and German "Aryans" (deemed the Herrenrasse - "master race"). It has been suggested that Reich Citizenship Law be merged into this article or section. ... The Nazi party used a right-facing swastika as their symbol and the red and black colors were said to represent Blut und Boden (blood and soil). ... For other uses, see Jew (disambiguation). ... The 1930s (years from 1930-1939) were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles, as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression, also known in Europe as the World Depression. ... The term Untermensch (German for under man, sub-man) is the term from Nazi racial ideology used to describe inferior nations. ... Aryan () is an English language word derived from the Sanskrit and Iranian terms Ärya-, the extended form aryÄna-, ari- and/or arya- (Sanskrit: à¤†à¤°à¥à¤¯, Persian: Ø¢Ø±ÛŒØ§). Beyond its use as the ethnic self-designation of the Proto-Indo-Iranians, the meaning noble/spiritual has been attached to it in Sanskrit and... The master race (German: Herrenrasse, Herrenvolk) is a concept in Nazi ideology, which holds that the Germanic and Nordic people represent an ideal and pure race. It derives from nineteenth century racial theory, which posited a hierarchy of races placing African Bushmen and Australian Aborigines at the bottom of the...

Under the General Government of occupied Poland in 1940, the population was divided into different groups, each with different rights, food rations, allowed strips in the cities, public transportation, and assigned The General Government (in full General government for the occupied Polish areas, in German Generalgouvernement fÃ¼r die besetzten polnischen Gebiete) was the name given by Germany to the governing authority in Poland after its occupation by the Wehrmacht in September and October 1939. ... Year 1940 (MCMXL) was a leap year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1940 calendar). ...

Ukrainians,
Highlanders (Goralenvolk) - an attempt to split the Polish nation by using local collaborators
Kashubians (Kaschobenvolk) - similar attempt like with Goralenvolk, but less successful
Poles,
Jews (eventually sentenced to extermination as a category).
Homosexuals
Roma people
Jehovah's Witnesses

During the 1930s and 40s, Jews in Nazi-controlled states were forced to wear yellow ribbons or stars of David, and were, along with Romas (Gypsies) discriminated against by the racial laws. Jewish doctors and professors were not allowed to treat Aryan (effectively, gentile) patients or teach Aryan pupils, respectively. The Jews were also not allowed to use any public transportation, besides the ferry, and would only be able to shop from 3-5 in Jewish stores. After Kristallnacht ("The Night of Broken Glass"), the Jews were fined 1,000,000 marks for damages done by the Nazi troops and SS members. During German occupation of Poland in World War II, attempts to divide the Polish nation by the new rulers led to the postulation of a separate ethnicity called Goralenvolk. Derived from the Polish word GÃ³rale (Mountain People or Highlanders), it designated the population of the region of Podhale in... Kashubians, Kassubians, or Cassubians (Kashubian: KaszÃ«bi) are a Slavic ethnic group living in modern-day northwestern Poland. ... Homosexuality is a sexual orientation characterized by esthetic attraction, romantic love, or sexual desire exclusively for another of the same sex. ... Tzigane redirects here; for the composition by Maurice Ravel, see Tzigane (Ravel). ... The 1930s (years from 1930-1939) were described as an abrupt shift to more radical and conservative lifestyles, as countries were struggling to find a solution to the Great Depression, also known in Europe as the World Depression. ... The 1940s decade ran from 1940 to 1949. ... Tzigane redirects here; for the composition by Maurice Ravel, see Tzigane (Ravel). ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Dots represent large cities where synagogues were destroyed. ... A 100 Reichsmark banknote from Germany of 1935 (http://www. ... The double-Sig Rune SS insignia. ...

Rhodesia (20th century)

The British colony of Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe), under Ian Smith, leader of the white minority government, declared unilateral independence in 1965. For the next 15 years, Rhodesia operated under white minority rule until international sanctions forced Smith to hold multiracial elections, after a brief period of British rule in 1979. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... National motto: Sit Nomine Digna (Latin: May she be worthy of the name) Official language English Capital Salisbury Political system Parliamentary system Form of government Constitutional monarchy (until 1970) Republic (March 2, 1970) - Last President John Wrathall - Prime Minister Ian Smith Area - Total - % water 390 580 kmÂ² 1% Population - 1978... The Rt Hon Ian Smith, Prime Minister of Rhodesia, 1964 (official portrait) The Right Honourable Ian Douglas Smith, GCLM ID, (born April 8, 1919) was the Premier of the British Crown Colony of Southern Rhodesia from April 13, 1964 to November 11, 1965 and the Prime Minister of Rhodesia (now...

Laws enforcing segregation had been around before 1965, although many institutions simply ignored them. One highly publicized legal battle occurred in 1960 involving the opening of a new Theatre that was to be open to all races, this incident was nicknamed "The Battle of the Toilets". 1960 (MCMLX) was a leap year starting on Friday (the link is to a full 1960 calendar). ... Front view of Reps Theatre Reps Theatre (also known as The Repertory Players or simply Reps) is a multi-racial Zimbabwe theatre and theatrical company based in the capital city of Harare. ... Front view of Reps Theatre Reps Theatre (also known as The Repertory Players or simply Reps) is a multi-racial Zimbabwe theatre and theatrical company based in the capital city of Harare. ...

South Africa (20th century)

Main article: History of South Africa in the Apartheid Era

"Petty apartheid": sign on Durban beach in English, Afrikaans and Zulu languages

Apartheid was a system which existed in South Africa for over forty years, although the term itself had a history going back to the 1910s and unofficially before that for many years. It was formalized in the years following the victory of the National Party in the all-white national election of 1948, increased in dominancy under the rule of Prime Minister Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd and remained law until 1990. Examples of apartheid policy introduced are the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, 1951, which made it illegal for marriage between races. Petty apartheid: sign on Durban beach in English, Afrikaans and Zulu (1989) Apartheid (literally separateness in Afrikaans) was a system of racial segregation that was enforced in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (512x800, 59 KB) Summary Taken and donated by John Mullen. ... Image File history File links Download high resolution version (512x800, 59 KB) Summary Taken and donated by John Mullen. ... Look up Wiktionary:Swadesh lists for Afrikaans and Dutch in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ... Petty apartheid: sign on Durban beach in English, Afrikaans and Zulu (1989) Apartheid (literally separateness in Afrikaans) was a system of racial segregation that was enforced in South Africa from 1948 to 1994. ... // Events and trends The 1910s represent the culmination of European militarism which had its beginnings during the second half of the 19th Century. ... The National Party (Afrikaans: Nasionale Party) (with its members sometimes known as Nationalists or Nats) was the governing party of South Africa from June 4th 1948 until May 9th 1994, and was disbanded in 2005. ... Year 1948 (MCMXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Thursday (the link is to a full 1948 calendar). ... Silver medal commemorating Verwoerds death. ... 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1951 (MCMLI) was a common year starting on Monday; see its calendar. ...

Apartheid was abolished following a rapid change in public perception of racial segregation throughout the world, and an economic boycott against South Africa which had crippled and threatened to destroy its economy. Antarctica Oceania Africa Asia Europe North America South America Middle East Caribbean Central Asia East Asia North Asia South Asia Southeast Asia SW. Asia Australasia Melanesia Micronesia Polynesia Central America Latin America Northern America Americas C. Africa E. Africa N. Africa Southern Africa W. Africa C. Europe E. Europe N... Look up Boycott in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. ...

United States (19th-21st century)

Main article: Racial segregation in the United States

After the Emancipation Proclamation abolished slavery in the South, racial discrimination became regulated by the so-called Jim Crow laws, which mandated strict segregation of the races. Though such laws were instituted shortly after fighting ended in many cases, they only became formalized after the end of Republican-enforced Reconstruction in the 1870s and 80s during a period known as the nadir of American race relations. This legalized segregation lasted up to the 1960s, primarily through the deep and extensive power of southern conservatives. To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... Leland-Boker Authorized Edition, printed in June 1864 with a presidential signature Emancipation Proclamation was an executive order in 1863 by U.S. President Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War, which declared the freedom of all slaves in those areas of the rebellious Confederate States of America that had... Slave sale in Easton, Maryland The history of slavery in the United States began soon after Europeans first settled in what became the United States. ... Historic Southern United States. ... The term Jim Crow laws refers to a series of laws enacted mostly in the Southern United States in the later half of the 19th century that restricted most of the new privileges granted to African-Americans after the Civil War. ... The Republican Party is one of two major contemporary political parties in the United States; the other being the Democratic Party. ... // Reconstruction was the process in US history that resolved the issues of the American Civil War when both the Confederacy and slavery in the United States were destroyed. ... // The invention of the telephone (1876) by Alexander Graham Bell. ... // Development and commercial production of electric lighting Development and commercial production of gasoline-powered automobile by Karl Benz, Gottlieb Daimler and Maybach First commercial production and sales of phonographs and phonograph recordings. ... The nadir of American race relations refers to the period in United States history at the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th. ... The 1960s decade refers to the years from January 1, 1960 to December 31, 1969, inclusive. ... Southern Democrats are members of the U.S. Democratic Party who reside in the U.S. South. ...

While the majority in 1896 Plessy overtly upheld only "separate but equal" facilities (specifically, transportation facilities), Justice John Marshall Harlan in his dissent protested that the decision was an expression of white supremacy; he predicted that segregation would "stimulate aggressions … upon the admitted rights of colored citizens," "arouse race hate" and "perpetuate a feeling of distrust between [the] races."^[9] Plessy v. ... This is about the pre-World-War-I US Supreme Court justice; for his grandson, the mid-20th-century holder of the same position, see John Marshall Harlan II. John Marshall Harlan (June 1, 1833 â€“ October 14, 1911) was an American Supreme Court associate justice. ... A dissenting opinion is an opinion of one or more judges in an appellate court expressing disagreement with the majority opinion. ... White supremacy is a racist ideology which holds the belief that white people are superior to other races. ...

A segregated facility in Dallas, Texas. Note the sign "Colored Waiting Room" at the top.

Institutionalized racial segregation was ended as an official practice by the efforts of such civil rights activists as Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., working during the period from the end of World War II through the passage of the Voting Rights Act and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 supported by President Lyndon Johnson. Many of their efforts were acts of civil disobedience aimed at violating the racial segregation rules and laws, such as refusing to give up a seat in the black part of the bus to a white person (Rosa Parks), or holding sit-ins at all-white diners. Image File history File links Segregation_Dallas. ... Image File history File links Segregation_Dallas. ... Nickname: Big D Location in the state of Texas Country United States State Texas Counties Dallas, Collin, Denton, Kaufman, and Rockwall Mayor Laura Miller Area - City 997. ... Official language(s) English (de facto) See also languages of Texas Capital Austin Largest city Houston Area Ranked 2nd - Total 268,581 sq mi (695,622 kmÂ²) - Width 773 miles (1,244 km) - Length 790 miles (1,270 km) - % water 2. ... Martin Luther King is perhaps most famous for his I Have a Dream speech, given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom This article is about the civil rights movement following the Brown v. ... Activism, in a general sense, can be described as intentional action to bring about social or political change. ... Rosa Louise McCauley Parks (February 4, 1913 â€“ October 24, 2005) was an African American seamstress and civil rights activist whom the U.S. Congress dubbed the Mother of the Modern-Day Civil Rights Movement. Parks is famous for her refusal on December 1, 1955 to obey bus driver James Blake... Martin Luther King, Jr. ... The National Voting Rights Act of 1965 ()[1] outlawed the requirement that would-be voters in the United States take literacy tests to qualify to register to vote, and it provided for federal registration of voters in areas that had less than 50% of eligible minority voters registered. ... President Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . ... Lyndon Baines Johnson (August 27, 1908–January 22, 1973), often referred to as LBJ, was an American politician. ... It has been suggested that Civil and social disobedience be merged into this article or section. ... A sit-in or sit-down is a form of direct action that involves one or more persons nonviolently occupying an area for protest, often political, social, or economic change. ...

Not all racial segregation laws have been repealed in the United States, although Supreme Court rulings have rendered them unenforceable. For instance, the Alabama Constitution still mandates that Separate schools shall be provided for white and colored children, and no child of either race shall be permitted to attend a school of the other race.^[10] A proposal to repeal this provision was narrowly defeated in 2004. However, in a different arena, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in February 2005 in Johnson v. California (125 S. Ct. 1141) that the California Department of Corrections' unwritten practice of racially segregating prisoners in its prison reception centers — which California claimed was for inmate safety (gangs in California, as throughout the U.S., usually organize on racial lines)— is to be subject to strict scrutiny, the highest level of constitutional review. Although the high court remanded the case back to the lower courts, it is likely^{[citation needed]} that their decision will have the impact of forcing California to alter its practice of segregating by race in its reception centers. The Alabama Constitution is the basic governing document of the U.S. state of Alabama. ... 2004 (MMIV) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 2005 (MMV) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Strict scrutiny is the highest standard of judicial review used by courts in the United States. ... Remand is a legal term which has two related but distinct usages. ...

According to the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, the actual desegregation of U.S. public schools peaked in 1988; since that time, the schools have, in fact, become more segregated. As of 2005, the present proportion of black students at majority white schools "a level lower than in any year since 1968."^[11] Harvard redirects here. ... 1988 (MCMLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

Current history

Bahrain

After municipal elections in Bahrain in 2002 brought Islamist opposition party Al Wefaq Islamic Action to power in the capital Manama, its newly installed mayor, Murthader Bader called for the introduction of racial segregation with the removal from the city of all non-Bahraini South Asian inhabitants and for the creation of a new township to house them. Islamism is a political ideology derived from the conservative religious views of Muslim fundamentalism. ... Al Wefaq National Islamic Society is Bahrains most largest political society. ... Bahrain from space, June 1996 Manama (Arabic: Ø§Ù„Ù…Ù†Ø§Ù…Ø© Al-ManÄmah) is the capital city of Bahrain and is the countrys largest city with a population of approximately 155,000, roughly a quarter of countrys entire population. ...

Mr Bader told the English language Gulf Daily News "It would cost a lot and we would have to find an area to accept them," he said. "A big question is where to build any new accommodation."

The government rejected the proposals.

Israel and the territories

The Israeli human rights organisation B'Tselem criticises Israel for apartheid-like activities: "Israel has established in the Occupied Territories a separation cum discrimination regime, in which it maintains two systems of laws, and a person’s rights are based on his or her national origin. This regime is the only of its kind in the world, and brings to mind dark regimes of the past, such as the Apartheid regime in South Africa."^[12] // BTselem (Hebrew ×‘×¦×œ×, in the image of, as in Genesis 1:27) is an non-governmental organization (NGO) that describes itself as The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories. ... A segregated beach in South Africa, 1982. ... This does not cite its references or sources. ... A segregated beach in South Africa, 1982. ...

Others argue that this comparison is ungrounded, maintaining that Israel has over one million Arab citizens, and they are given the same rights and freedoms as the rest of the population. For other uses, see Arab (disambiguation). ...

For example, Benjamin Pogrund, who was active in the South African anti-apartheid movement, wrote of the comparison:

"... it isn't true. Anyone who knows what apartheid was, and who knows Israel today, is aware of that. Use of the apartheid label is at best ignorant and naïve and at worst cynical and manipulative."^[13]

Both Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have expressed concern over human rights within Israel: Amnesty International symbol Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a non-governmental organization (NGO) comprising a worldwide movement of people who campaign for internationally recognized human rights.[1] Essentially it compares actual practices of human rights with internationally accepted standards and demands compliance where these have not... Human Rights Watch Banner Human Rights Watch is a United States-based international non-government organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. ...

From Human Rights Watch (in terms reminiscent of the situation of Roma people in some Eastern European countries):

"Government-run Arab schools are a world apart from government-run Jewish schools. In virtually every respect, Palestinian Arab children get an education inferior to that of Jewish children, and their relatively poor performance in school reflects this."^[14]

From Amnesty International:

"In August the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination called for the revocation of the Citizenship and Entry into Israel Law, passed the previous year and extended for six months in July. The law institutionalized racial discrimination. It barred Israeli Arab citizens married to Palestinians from the Occupied Territories from living with their spouses in Israel, and forced families to either live apart or leave the country altogether."^[15]

South African Archbishop emeritus Desmond Tutu has accused Israel of practising apartheid and said that "it reminded me so much of what happened to us black people in South Africa".^[16] Tzigane redirects here; for the composition by Maurice Ravel, see Tzigane (Ravel). ... The Most Reverend Desmond Mpilo Tutu (born 7 October 1931) is a South African cleric and activist who rose to worldwide fame during the 1980s as an opponent of apartheid. ...

Fiji

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Two military coups in Fiji in 1987 removed from power a government that was led by an ethnic Fijian, but was supported principally by the Indo-Fijian (ethnic Indian) electorate, which then made up approximately half of the population. A new constitution was promulgated in 1990, establishing Fiji as a republic, with the offices of President, Prime Minister, two-thirds of the Senate, and a clear majority of the House of Representatives reserved for ethnic Fijians, despite the fact that ethnic Fijians then comprised less than half the population. Ethnic Fijian ownership of the land (which was worked principally by Indo-Fijians) was also entrenched in the constitution. Image File history File links Current_event_marker. ... Image File history File links Nuvola_apps_important. ... Fiji Coups of 1987 refers to the 1987 overthrow of the government of Fiji by Lieutenant Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka, then third in command of the Royal Fiji Military Forces. ... 1987 (MCMLXXXVII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Indigenous Fijians are the major indigenous people of the Fiji Islands. ... Indo-Fijians are people born in Fiji, but are ethnically Indian. ... 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Fiji became a republic in 1987, when Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom formally abdicated as Queen of Fiji, following two military coups led by Lieutenant Colonel Sitiveni Rabuka. ... Fiji received its independence in 1970. ... The Senate of Fiji is the upper chamber of Parliament. ... Overview The House of Representatives is the lower chamber of Fijis Parliament. ...

World-wide condemnation of the 1990 constitution, and a brain-drain of many Indo-Fijian professionals and business owners, caused the Fijian government to revise the constitution in 1997. Amendments deleted most of the discriminatory provisions, and subsequent elections in 1999 brought a new government to power, with Mahendra Chaudhry as the country's first Indo-Fijian Prime Minister. 1990 (MCMXC) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about the emigration term. ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... 1999 (MCMXCIX) was a common year starting on Friday, and was designated the International Year of Older Persons by the United Nations. ... Mahendra Pal Chaudhry (born 9 February 1942) is the leader of the Fiji Labour Party and currently the Leader of the Opposition in Parliament. ...

Another coup followed in 2000, with George Speight, supported by sympathetic officers in the Army and police force, seizing power, with the aim of ending Indo-Fijian influence in politics. Democracy, and the moderate 1997 constitution, were eventually restored, however. The Fiji coup of 2000 was a complicated affair involving a civilian putsch by hardline Fijian nationalists against the elected government of Prime Minister Mahendra Chaudhry on 19 May 2000, the attempt by President Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara to assert executive authority on 27 May, and his own resignation, possibly... George Speight George Speight, occasionally known as Ilikimi Naitini (born 1957), was the principal instigator of the Fiji coup of 2000, in which he kidnapped thirty-six government officials and held them from May 19, 2000 to July 13, 2000. ... 1997 (MCMXCVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

The subsequently appointed prime minister, Laisenia Qarase, refused to adhere to the Constitution by not including members of the largely Indo-Fijian Fiji Labour Party in the government. This non-adherence partly led to the military coup that eventually ousted him. Laisenia Qarase (born February 4, 1941) was Prime Minister of Fiji from 2000 to 2006. ... The Fiji Labour Party is a political party in Fiji. ...

Malaysia

Malaysia has an article in its constitution which distinctly segregates the Malays and other indigeneous peoples of Malaysia from the non-Malays, or bumiputra under the social contract, giving them special rights and privileges. This includes government-sponsored discounts and requiring even the private sector of the economy to preferentially treat bumiputras with economic privileges and penalising companies who do not have a certain quota of bumiputra in employment. Furthermore, any discussion of abolishing the article is prohibited with the justification that it is seditious. This form of state-sponsored racial segregation is claimed as apartheid to opponents of the article. Supporters of the policy maintain that this is affirmative action for the bumiputra who had suffered during the colonial era of the history of Malaysia, using the concept of the Ketuanan Melayu that Malaysia belongs to the Malays. In 2005, UMNO Youth Chief Hishamuddin Hussein brandished the keris (traditional Malay dagger) in defense of ketuanan Melayu, the social contract and Article 153. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Bumiputra or Bumiputera (from Sanskrit Bhumiputra; translated literally, it means sons of the Earth; Malay, translated literally, it means princes of the Earth), is an official definition widely used in Malaysia, embracing ethnic Malays as well as other indigenous ethnic groups such as the Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia and... The social contract in Malaysia refers to the agreement made by the countrys founding fathers in the Constitution. ... The private sector of a nations economy consists of all that is outside the state. ... Sedition is a term of law to refer to covert conduct such as speech and organization that is deemed by the legal authority as tending toward insurrection against the established order. ... Affirmative action (or positive discrimination) is a policy or a program whose stated goal is to redress past or present discrimination through active measures to ensure equal opportunity, generally concerning education, employment or seats in parliament and/or government. ... The history of Malaysia is a relatively recent offshoot of the history of the wider Malay-Indonesian world. ... United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) Youth Chief Hishammuddin Hussein brandishing the kris (dagger) in defence of ketuanan Melayu. ...

Sociological research (Brown v. Board)

In the Brown v. Board decision, Chief Justice Earl Warren, writing for a unanimous court, said that "in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal... To separate them from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely ever to be undone." Earl Warren (March 19, 1891 â€“ July 9, 1974) was a California district attorney of Alameda County, the 30th Governor of California, and the 14th Chief Justice of the United States (from 1953 to 1969). ...

The decision made clear that the justices were influenced in part by studies by Kenneth B. Clark showing that segregated education had a negative psychological effect upon black school children. Significant doubt was subsequently cast on these studies, especially Clark's "doll study." Black students in segregated schools were shown both black and white dolls and asked which one they liked better. A majority of black students preferred the white doll, which was believed by Clark to demonstrate lowered black self-esteem as a result of segregation. Clark, however, did not present to the court his own research which showed that black children in integrated schools were even more likely to choose the white doll than those in segregated schools. Furthermore, when Asian children were segregated around the turn of the century, they consistently outperformed white children.^{[citation needed]} Kenneth Bancroft Clark (July 24, 1914â€“May 1, 2005), was an African American psychologist who along with his wife Mamie Clark founded the Northside Center for Child Development in Harlem. ...

Notes and references

^ Principles to Guide Housing Policy at the Beginning of the Millennium, Michael Schill & Susan Wachter, Cityscape
^ http://www.immi.gov.au/facts/08abolition.htm
^ http://www.unswpress.com.au/isbn/0868407194.htm
^ http://www.zmag.org/content/Race/pilger0127.cfm
^ http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/054.html
^ http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/24/177.html
^ http://www.jcu.edu.au/aff/history/articles/limb.htm
^ http://www.convictcreations.com/history/federation.htm
^ http://www.thenation.com/doc/20040503/fonerkennedy
^ http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeOfAlabama/Constitution/1901/CA-245806.htm
^ http://www.thenation.com/doc/20051219/kozol
^ http://www.btselem.org/english/settlements/index.asp
^ http://www.mideastweb.org/israel_apartheid.htm
^ http://hrw.org/english/docs/2001/12/05/isrlpa3399.htm
^ http://web.amnesty.org/report2005/isr-summary-eng
^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/1957644.stm

--- Snowcovered Blaauwbrug 1991 Amsterdam cityscape Frans Koppelaar A cityscape is the urban equivalent of a landscape. ...

Dobratz, Betty A. and Shanks-Meile, Stephanie L, White Power, White Pride!: The White Separatist Movement in the United States, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001, 384 pages, ISBN 0-8018-6537-9.

Stokes, DaShanne. (In Press) Legalized Segregation and the Denial of Religious Freedom

Rural Face of White Supremacy: Beyond Jim Crow, by Mark Schultz. University of Illinois Press, 2005, ISBN 0-252-02960-7.

External links

A site dedicated to the life of MLK
A study of segregation
Constitutional Law and Race-Conscious Policies in K-12 Education
Religious Freedom with Raptors - details racism and segregation in Native American religious freedom.
Website of Bahraini Islamists Al-Wefaq (in Arabic)

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