Euthanasia (from Greek: ευθανασία - ευ "good", θανατος "death") refers to assisted dying. The assistance ends the life of a person or an animal in a painless or minimally painful way. Euthanasia is most often performed in a merciful way, in order to end suffering. For animal mercy killings see animal euthanasia. It has been suggested that Suicide and culture be merged into this article or section. ... Teenage suicide is an act where a teenager commits suicide. ... A murder suicide is an act in which an individual kills one or more other persons immediately before, or while killing himself. ... A suicide bombing is an attack using a bomb in which the individual(s) carrying the explosive materials composing the bomb intend(s) and expect(s) to die upon detonation (see suicide). ... Ritual suicide is the act of suicide motivated by a religious, spiritual, or traditional ritual. ... Mass suicide occurs when a number of people kill themselves together or for the same reason and is usually connected to a real or perceived persecution. ... A Suicide pact describes the suicides of two or more individuals in an agreed-upon plan. ... An Internet suicide is a suicide pact made between individuals who meet on the Internet. ... A copycat suicide is defined as a duplication or copycat of another suicide that the person attempting suicide knows about either from local knowledge or due to accounts or depictions of the original suicide on television and in other media. ... Forced suicide is a method of execution where the victim is given the choice of commiting suicide, or facing an alternative they perceive as worse - like suffering torture, or having friends or family members killed. ... Suicide-by-cop is a suicide method in which someone deliberately acts in a threatening way towards a law enforcement officer, with the main goal of provoking a lethal response (e. ... Suicide has been part of the history of the world - people of all walks of life had committed suicide over the year. ... See also: deaths by accidental drug overdose, people by cause of death This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it. ... This is a list of a number of common suicide methods that are used by people who wish to commit suicide. ... Kurt Cobains alleged suicide note. ... Suicide watch is the act of a prison officer making sure that a prisoner does not commit suicide because they show intentions of doing so. ... Various human cultures may have views on suicide not directly or solely linked to religious views of suicide. ... This page concerns suicide. ... Modern medical views on suicide consider suicide to be a mental health issue. ... There are a variety of philosophical views of suicide. ... There are a variety of religious views of suicide. ... For the 1987 film, see Right to Die (film) The term right to die (also: Dying with Dignity) refers to various issues around the death of an individual when that person could continue to live with the aid of life support or in a diminished or enfeebled capacity. ... Wikipedia contains a list of crisis hotlines by country. ... Various suicide prevention strategies have been used: Promoting mental resilience through optimism and connectedness. ... List of crisis hotlines by country USA - 1-800-784-2433 (1-800-SUICIDE) National Hopeline Network USA - 1-800-273-8255 (1-800-273-TALK) National Suicide Prevention Lifeline Links http://www. ... Modern medical views on suicide consider suicide to be a mental health issue. ... Death is the cessation of physical life in a living organism, or the state of the organism after that event. ... Euthanasia (Greek, good death) is the practice of killing a person or animal, in a painless or minimally painful way, for merciful reasons, usually to end suffering. ...

The terminology and its implications

Euthanasia as a topic is often highly-charged—emotionally, politically, and morally. Terminology and laws shift over time, geographically and globally, causing a great deal of confusion. In politically and emotionally loaded terms, this is frequently referred to as physician-assisted suicide. Euthanasia (Greek, good death) is the practice of killing a person or animal, in a painless or minimally painful way, for merciful reasons, usually to end their suffering. ...

There is some debate as to whether euthanasia refers to "letting die" or "allowing to die." In the United States and the Netherlands, "letting die" or "allowing to die" refer to areas which the state consider ethically and legally acceptable and permissible. This includes the withholding and withdrawing of medical treatment such as dialysis, feeding tubes or hydration and nutrition when they no longer prolong the life of the dying person. Sometimes, as a body's major organ systems shut down, a dying person may feel most comfortable without any fluids or food. To provide fluids and nutrition in this situation is like "force feeding" a body that does not "want" or need to be fed or hydrated, and doing so may actually cause physical discomfort and suffering. This is a different situation than when the person is not dying, and whose body can absorb nutrition and fluids.

In most other countries removing or denying treatment is usually seen as murder. In a growing number of law cases over the last 20 years, the jury has usually sided with the defendant.

Following are several summary statements defining what euthanasia can include. These are followed by expanded definitions of each. Euthanasia (assisted dying) may employ methods that are either indirect or direct. Indirect methods of euthanasia are defined by an individual him or herself taking the final step inducing death. Direct methods are defined by the involvement of others (clinicians) who take the final step inducing death. Direct euthanasia can either be voluntary, nonvoluntary or involuntary. (See Karl Binding and Alfred Hoche for one of the first uses of the three types of euthanasia.) Karl Lorenz Binding (born June 4, 1841 in Frankfurt; died April 7, 1920 in Freiburg) was a German criminal jurist and a promoter of the theory of retributive justice. ... Alfred Erich Hoche (August 1, 1865 - May 16, 1943) was a German psychiatrist well-known for his writings about eugenics. ...

Indirect euthanasia means the involvement of a clinician (e.g. physician, clinical nurse practitioner, pharmacist) as an agent who participates only by providing the means for a patient to induce his/her own death. This could mean writing or filling a prescription for medications in a quantity large enough to cause death when taken by the patient. This kind of assistance is currently legal in the American state of Oregon. It became legal in 1998 as a result of the "Death with Dignity Act" which was passed in the state in 1994. Motto: E pluribus unum (1789 to 1956) (Latin: Out of Many, One) In God We Trust (1956 to present) Anthem: The Star-Spangled Banner Capital Washington, D.C. Largest city New York City Official language(s) None at federal level; English de facto Government  â€¢ President  â€¢ Vice President Federal republic George... Official language(s) None Capital Salem Largest city Portland Area  - Total  - Width  - Length  - % water  - Latitude  - Longitude Ranked 9th 255,026 km² 420 km 580 km 2. ...

Direct euthanasia means the involvement of a clinician as agent in inducing a patient’s death. (e.g. administering a lethal drug by injection.) Direct euthanasia is not currently legal anywhere in the US, but both direct and indirect euthanasia are legal in Belgium and the Netherlands. This may be due to the patient being incapable of commiting suicide without help, possibly due to their illness.

Voluntary euthanasia occurs with the fully-informed request of a decisionally-competent adult patient or that of their surrogate (proxy). (Example: Thomas Youk, with ALS was assisted by Jack Kevorkian.) Augustenborg Castle on the island of Als, Denmark. ... Jack Kevorkian Jack Kevorkian, M.D. (born May 26, 1928) is a controversial American pathologist. ...

Nonvoluntary euthanasia occurs without the fully-informed consent and fully-informed request of a decisionally-competent adult patient or that of their surrogate (proxy). An example of this might be if a patient has decisional capacity but is not told they will be euthanized; or, if a patient is not conscious or lacks decisional-capacity and their surrogate is not told the patient will be euthanized.

Involuntary euthanasia occurs over the objection of a patient or their surrogate (proxy). An example of this might be if a patient with decisional capacity (or their surrogate) is told what will happen. The patient (or surrogate) refuses yet the patient is euthanized anyway.

Terminal sedation is a combination of medically inducing a deep sleep and stopping other treatment, with the exception of medication for symptom control (such as analgesia). It is considered to be euthanasia by some, but under current law and medical practice it is considered a form of palliative care. Terminal sedation (also known as palliative sedation, slow euthanasia or sedation for intractable distress in the dying/of a dying patiënt) is the practice of inducing unconsciousness in a terminally ill person for the remainder of the persons life, usually by means of a continuous intravenous or subcutaneous... For other uses of painkiller, see painkiller (disambiguation) An analgesic (colloquially known as painkiller) is any member of the diverse group of drugs used to relieve pain. ... Palliative care: To palliate means to cover or cloak. ...

In Nazi Germany the term "euthanasia" (Euthanasie) referred to the systematic killing of disabled children and adults under the T-4 Euthanasia Program. This program was cancelled (at least officially) after public disapproval was expressed. This has tainted the word especially in German-speaking countries; especially as one of the main advocates of euthanasia in Germany after World War II, was Werner Catel, a leading Nazi doctor directly involved in T4. The alternate term is the older Sterbehilfe, which means "help the dying to die smoothly". This meaning of the term "Sterbehilfe" is used within today's discussions in German newspapers and in other public forums like the TV, radio and the Internet. Nazi Germany, or the Third Reich, commonly refers to Germany in the years 1933–1945, when it was under the firm control of the totalitarian and fascist ideology of the Nazi Party, with the Führer Adolf Hitler as dictator. ... This poster reads: This person suffering from hereditary defects costs the community of the people 60,000 Reichsmark during his lifetime. ... German (called Deutsch in German; in German the term germanisch is equivalent to English Germanic), is a member of the western group of Germanic languages and is one of the worlds major languages. ... Werner Catel was one of three Nazi doctors considered an expert on the programme of euthanasia for children, the other two being Hans Heinze and Ernst Wentzler. ...

Legislation and national political movements

Australia

Euthanasia was legalized in Australia's Northern Territory, by the Rights of the Terminally Ill Act 1995. However, this law was soon voided by an amendment by the Commonwealth to the Northern Territory (Self-Government) Act 1978. (The powers of the Northern Territory legislature, unlike those of the State legislatures, are not guaranteed by the Australian Constitution.) Three people had already been legally euthanised, however, before the Commonwealth government made this amendment. Motto: None Nickname: ? Other Australian states and territories Capital Darwin Government Administrator Chief Minister Const. ... The Rights of the Terminally Ill Act was a controversial law legalising euthanasia passed by Australias Northern Territory in 1995, and nullified in 1997 by the federal Parliament. ...

Although it has for some time been a crime in most Australian states to assist another to commit suicide, prosecutions have been rare. In Queensland recently (2002) a group of relatives and friends who provided moral support to an elderly woman who committed suicide were extensively investigated by police, but no charges were laid. In Tasmania in 2005 a nurse was convicted of assisting her elderly mother and father die as they were both suffering from illnes. She was given a two and a half year jail scentence but the judge later suspended the scentence because he believed the community did not want the woman put behind bars. This sparked debate about decriminalising euthanasia as judges did not seem interested in enforcing the existing law.

Belgium

After an extensive discussion the Belgian parliament legalized euthanasia in late September 2002. The new legislation, however, institutes a complicated process, which has been criticized as an attempt to establish a bureaucracy of death. Nevertheless, euthanasia is now legal and its proponents in the country hope that it will stop many illegal practices (it is said that several thousand illegal acts of euthanasia have been carried out in Belgium each year).

Canada

In the early 1990s, 42-year-old Sue Rodriguez, who had amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease), fought to overturn the law against assisted suicide. She lost her court battle, but was assisted in her dying with the help of an anonymous doctor. Under Canada's Criminal Code, assisting someone to die is illegal and punishable by up to 14 years in prison. (For more on this case, see the CBC's archival footage of coverage from 1994-1995.) Sue Rodriguez (August 2, 1950-February 12, 1994) was a Canadian euthanasia advocate. ... Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS, sometimes called Lou Gehrigs disease) is a progressive, invariably fatal motor neurone disease. ... Augustenborg Castle on the island of Als, Denmark. ... Motor neurone disease (MND) is a term used to cover a number of illnesses of the motor neurone: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), progressive muscular atrophy (PMA), progressive bulbar palsy (PBP) and progressive lateral sclerosis (PLS). ...

In 2004, noted journalist and social activist June Callwood went public about her battle with cancer. She has since also come out in favour of assisted suicide, following the June 2005 introduction of a private member's bill that would legalize it (C-407): June Callwood, C.C., O.Ont. ... When normal cells are damaged beyond repair, they are eliminated by apoptosis. ... Francine Lalonde (born August 24, 1940 in Saint-Hyacinthe, Quebec) is a Canadian politician. ...

I'm very fiercely independent. And if my life ends with dependency, I will be one furious woman. I want to be intact. I don't want to be nursed, lying there with tubes everywhere (as I've seen some of my friends). I don't want that at all. I want it to be rather quick.

These comments bracket a very personal discussion about her own situation. Watch the whole interview from CBC News: The Hour. CBC News: The Hour is the title of a newsmagazine series in Canada, which started airing weekday evenings on CBC Newsworld, on January 17, 2005. ...

On January 28, 2005, Marcel Tremblay of Kanata, Ontario held a press conference to announce plans to kill himself, saying his life with pulmonary fibrosis was unbearable. After attending his own living wake, the 78-year-old man committed suicide at 11:51 pm Eastern time.[1] He had previously said he would be surrounded by his wife and adult children while he placed a bag over his head and filled it with helium. Tremblay said that he publicized his suicide plans to help change laws over assisted suicide. His lawyer said police were satisfied that Tremblay had a sound mind and that authorities would not intervene. Canada decriminalized committing suicide and attempting to commit suicide in 1972. Kanata was a suburban city just west of Ottawa, Ontario, Canada until it was annexed by Ottawa in 2001 to become the new city of Ottawa. ... Diffuse parenchymal lung disease (DPLD), also known as interstitial lung disease, refers to a group of lung diseases, affecting the alveolar epithelium, pulmonary capillary endothelium, basement membrane, perivascular and perilymphatic tissues. ...

The Netherlands

In the Netherlands the Termination of Life on Request and Assisted Suicide (Review Procedures) Act took effect on April 1, 2002. It legalizes euthanasia and physician assistance in dying in certain circumstances.

The law recognized a practice that had been tolerated for some 20 years. From the time that euthanasia first came to be widely practiced in the Netherlands, it was formally subject to review by boards of doctors in each hospital. The law essentially codified what had already become tolerated practice and unofficial law by judgments in the courts.

The law permits euthanasia and physician assisted dying when each of the following conditions is fulfilled:

• the patient's suffering is unbearable with no prospect of improvement
• the patient's request for euthanasia must be voluntary and persist over time (the request can not be granted when under the influence of others, psychological illness or drugs)
• the patient must be fully aware of his/her condition, prospects and options
• there must be consultation with at least one other independent doctor who needs to confirm the conditions mentioned above
• the death must be carried out in a medically appropriate fashion by the doctor or patient, in which case the doctor must be present.
• the patient is at least 12 years old (patients between 12 and 16 years of age require the consent of their parents)

The doctor must also report the cause of death to the municipal coroner in accordance with the relevant provisions of the Burial and Cremation Act. A regional review committee assesses whether a case of termination of life on request or assisted suicide complies with the due care criteria. Depending on its findings, the case will either be closed or brought to the attention of the Public Prosecutor. Finally, the legislation offers an explicit recognition of the validity of a written declaration of will of the patient regarding euthanasia (a "euthanasia directive"). Such declarations can be used when a patient is in a coma or otherwise unable to state whether they want euthanasia or not. A coroner is the presiding officer of a special court to investigate deaths that occur under unusual circumstances where conventional criminal proceedings are not immediately called for. ... A living will, also called will to live, advance health directive, or advance health care directive, is a specific type of power of attorney or health care proxy or advance directive. ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ...

The legislation has wide support among the socially libertarian Dutch, who have one of the world's highest life expectancies. There is however persistent opposition, mainly organized by the churches. Life expectancy is the average number of years remaining for a living being (or the average for a class of living beings) of a given age to live. ...

Euthanasia remains a criminal offense in cases not meeting the law's specific conditions, with the exception of several situations that are not subject to the restrictions of the law at all, because they are considered normal medical practice:

• stopping or not starting a medically useless (futile) treatment
• stopping or not starting a treatment at the patient's request
• speeding up death as a side-effect of treatment necessary for alleviating serious suffering

Euthanasia of children under the age of 12 remains technically illegal, however Dr. Eduard Verhagen has documented several cases and, together with colleagues and prosecutors, has developed a protocol to be followed in those cases. Prosecutors will refrain from pressing charges if this Groningen protocol is followed. Adverse effect, in medicine, is an abnormal, harmful, undesired and/or unintended side-effect, although not necessarily unexpected, which is obtained as the result of a therapy or other medical intervention, such as drug/chemotherapy, physical therapy, surgery, medical procedure, use of a medical device, etc. ... Eduard Verhagen is clinical director of pediatrics at the University of Groningen. ...

In 1992 a proposal was made known as Drion's Pill. This fictional drug would be a set of 2 pills. The first pill could be taken without any harm, the second pill would have to be taken a couple of days later (and only then would work). This would give the patient the time to think things over. The drug was never developed, the proposal however indirectly started up the discussion of euthanasia in Netherlands.

Statistics and methods

In 2003, in the Netherlands, 1626 cases were officially reported of euthanasia in the sense of a physician assisting the death (1.2% of all deaths). Usually the sedative sodium thiopental is intravenously administered to induce a coma. Once it is certain that the patient is in a deep coma, typically after some minutes, a muscle relaxant is administered to stop the breathing and cause death. 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... A sedative is a drug that depresses the central nervous system (CNS), which causes calmness, relaxation, reduction of anxiety, sleepiness, slowed breathing, slurred speech, staggering gait, poor judgment, and slow, uncertain reflexes. ... Sodium thiopental also called Sodium Pentothal (a trademark of Abbott Laboratories), thiopental, thiopentone sodium, or trapanal is a rapid-onset, short-acting barbiturate general anesthetic. ... An intravenous drip in a hospital Intravenous therapy or IV therapy is the administration of liquid substances directly into a vein. ... This article is in need of attention from an expert on the subject. ... In medicine, a muscle relaxant is a drug that causes skeletal muscle contraction to cease. ... For the play Breath by Samuel Beckett, see Breath (play). ...

Officially reported were also 148 cases of physician assisted dying (0.14% of all deaths), usually by drinking a strong (10g) barbiturate potion. The doctor is required to be present for two reasons: Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia. ... A potion (from Latin potio, potionis, meaning beverage, potion, poison) is a drinkable medicine or poison. ...

• to make sure the potion is not taken by a different person, by accident (or, theoretically, for "unauthorized" suicide or perhaps even murder)
• to monitor the process and be available to apply the combined procedure mentioned below, if necessary.

In two cases the doctor was reprimanded for not being present while the patient drank the potion. They said they had not realized that this was required.

Forty-one cases were reported to combine the two procedures: usually in these cases the patient drinks the potion, but this does not cause death. After a few hours, or earlier in the case of vomiting, the muscle relaxant is administered to cause death. Vomiting (or emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of ones stomach through the mouth. ...

By far, most reported cases concerned cancer patients. Also, in most cases the procedure was applied at home. When normal cells are damaged beyond repair, they are eliminated by apoptosis. ...

Note that some medical authorities and investigative reporters claim there are substantial numbers of euthanasias in the Netherlands performed without consultation or official notice – see links below.

Oregon (United States)

Oregon Law, passed by voters in 1994 and reaffirmed by voters in 1997, states an individual must meet the following criteria:

1) 18 years of age or older,unless consent is given by a parent for children under the age of 18

2) a resident of Oregon,

3) informed consent must be given

4) diagnosed with a terminal illness that will lead to death within six months and is not basing his or her decision to die on depression or another mental disorder. Two physicians assist in verification.

Also, it is required by law that this must be verified by two physicians, as well as by two witnesses.

Statistics and methods

In 2003, in Oregon 42 cases of physician assisted dying were reported (0.14% of all deaths), all by drinking a strong barbiturate potion, usually 9g of Pentobarbital. The doctor is not required to be present; in 12 cases he/she was. 2003 (MMIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. ... Barbiturates are drugs that act as central nervous system (CNS) depressants, and by virtue of this they produce a wide spectrum of effects, from mild sedation to anesthesia. ... A potion (from Latin potio, potionis, meaning beverage, potion, poison) is a drinkable medicine or poison. ... Pentobarbital is a barbiturate that is available as both a free acid and a sodium salt, the former of which is only slightly soluble in water and ethanol. ...

Since 1998, 171 Oregonians have relied on the "Death with Dignity" law. There were three cases of regurgitation. In each case at least one third of the potion was retained, which caused death anyway, though in one case only after 48 hours. Regurgitation is the passive flow of stomach contents back into the esophagus and mouth. ...

The time from ingestion to unconsciousness was 1 to 20 minutes (median 4 minutes), the time from ingestion to death 5 minutes to 48 hours (median 20 minutes). In probability theory and statistics, the median is a number that separates the higher half of a sample, a population, or a probability distribution from the lower half. ...

Court cases

The Supreme Court of the United Status upheld Oregon's assisted suicide law over the federal Controlled Substances Act in Gonzales v. Oregon. Holding The Controlled Substances Act does not give the U.S. Attorney General the authority to prohibit doctors from prescribing drugs for use in physician-assisted suicide permitted by state law. ...

Attitudes on Euthanasia in the United States

In the last 20 years, some states have faced voter ballot initiatives and legislation bills attempting to legalize euthanasia and assisted suicide. Some examples include: Washington voters saw Ballot Initiative 119 in 1991, California placed Proposition 161 on the ballot in 1992, and Michigan included Proposal B in their ballot in 1998. Public opinion concerning this issue has become an increasingly important because widespread support could very well facilitate the legalization of these policies in other states, such as in Oregon.

While many people are aware of the ongoing debates concerning the issue of euthanasia and assisted suicide, it has been unclear where the public opinion stands in the United States. A recent Gallup Poll survey did show that 75% of Americans supported euthanasia, however further research has shown that there are significant differences in levels of support for euthanasia across distinct social groups. Recently, these attitudes have been receiving more attention since they not only could influence the legislation on this topic, but how patients are cared for in the future.

Religion

Some of the differences in public attitudes towards the right to die debate stem from the diversity of religion in this country. The United States contains a wide array of religious views, and these views seem to correlate with whether euthanasia was supported. Using the results from past General Social Surveys performed, some patterns can be found. Respondents that did not affiliate with a religion were found to support euthanasia more than those who did.

Of the religious groups that were studied, which were mostly Christian in this particular study, conservative Protestants (including Southern Baptists, Pentecostals, and Evangelicals) were the most opposed to euthanasia than non-affiliates and the other religious groups. Protestantism is a general grouping of denominations within Christianity. ... The Southern Baptist Convention (SBC) is a United States cooperative ministry agency serving missionary Baptist churches around the world. ... The Pentecostal movement within Protestant Christianity places special emphasis on the gifts of the Holy Spirit. ... Evangelicalism, in a strictly lexical, but rarely used sense, refers to all things that are implied in belief that Jesus is the savior. ...

Moderate Protestants (including Lutherans and Methodists) and Catholics showed mixed views concerning end of life decisions in general. Both of these groups showed less support than non-affiliates, but were less opposed to it than conservatives Protestants. Moderate Protestants are less likely to take a literal interpretation to Bible than their conservative counterparts, and some leaderships tend to take a less oppositional view on the issue. Despite the fact that the Catholic Church has come out in firm opposition to physician-assisted suicide, they share the nearly same level of support as moderate Protestants. The Lutheran movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity by the original definition. ... The Methodist movement is a group of denominations of Protestant Christianity. ...

The liberal Protestants (including Presbyterians and Episcopalians) were the most supportive of the groups. In general, they had looser affiliations with religious institutions and their views were similar to those of non-affiliates. Within all these groups, religiosity (identified as being frequency of church attendance and self-evaluation) also affected their level of opposition towards euthanasia. Individuals who attended church regularly and more frequently and considered themselves more religious were found to be more opposed than to those who had a lower level of religiosity (1). Presbyterianism is part of the Reformed churches family of denominations of Christian Protestantism based on the teachings of John Calvin which traces its institutional roots to the Scottish Reformation, especially as led by John Knox. ... The Episcopal Church may refer to several members of the Anglican Communion, including: Episcopal Church in the United States of America Scottish Episcopal Church Episcopal Church in Jerusalem and the Middle East Episcopal Church of Cuba idk of the Sudan Spanish Reformed Episcopal Church ...

Race and Ethnicity

Recent studies have shown a difference in acceptance of euthanasia among different racial and ethnic groups. Compared to African Americans, Caucasians were found to be more accepting of euthanasia as a whole. They are also more likely to have advance directives and to use other end of life measures (4). African Americans are 2.8 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than Caucasians. The main reason for this discrepancy is attributed to the lower levels of trust in the medical establishment (2). Researchers believe that past history of abuses towards minority in medicine (such as the Tuskegee syphilis study) have made minority groups less trustful of the level of care they receive. Studies have also found that there are significant disparities in the treatment and pain management that non-Caucasian groups received in the health care setting (4).

Within African Americans, level of education has also contributed to whether or not an individual would support euthanasia. Without a four-year college degree, African Americans were 2.24 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than those who did attain one. However, level of education does not significantly influence any other group. Some researchers also suggest that African Americans also tend to be more religiously fundamental, however this is a claim that is difficult to substantiate and define (2). However, only these two groups have been studied in extensive detail. Although it been has found that non-Caucasian groups are less supportive of euthanasia than Caucasians, there is still some ambiguity as to what degree this is true.

Gender

The research on differences in attitudes towards euthanasia across gender has shown that overall, gender is not considered a significant factor in predicting opinion. However, some studies have shown that there are differences in views between males and females. A recent Gallup Poll found that 84% of males supported euthanasia compared to 64% of females (3). Some cite the prior studies showing that women have a higher level of religiosity and moral conservatism as a reason of explanation. Within both genders, there are differences in attitudes towards euthanasia due to other influences. For example, one study found that African American women are 2.37 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than Caucasian women. African American men are 3.61 times more likely to oppose euthanasia than Caucasian men (2).

Economic Education

While the United States has a rather advanced health care system, it also contains a large population of uninsured poor and working class people that are not always able to afford to take advantage of it. In the debate over whether or not to legalize euthanasia, many academics fear that people lacking the resources to afford alternative options would become over represented in the percentage of those who did chose euthanasia. Several studies have shown that subjects from low-income groups oppose euthanasia more than other income groups. Compared to other factors, income level is not a strong predictor of support for euthanasia. For females, income level is less of predictor than in males (2).

Euthanasia by Omission in America: The Texas Futile Care Law

On March 15, 2005, six month old infant Sun Hudson was the first person to be forced to die under The Texas Futile Care Law signed by then Governor George W. Bush. [2] A human infant The word infant derives from the Latin word in-fans, meaning unable to speak. It is commonly used as a slightly more formal word for baby (the youngest category of child). ... Sun Hudson (September 25, 2004 - March 15, 2005) was an infant male allowed to die contrary to the wishes of his mother and legal guardian Wanda Hudson, via removal of his breathing tube. ... The Texas Advance Directives Act (1999) describes certain provisions that are now Chapter 166 of the Texas Health & Safety Code. ... George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is the 43rd and current President of the United States. ...

In December 2005, Tirhas Habtegiris, a young woman and legal immigrant from Africa, was concious and responsive when removed from a respirator and forced to die, against her wishes and against the wishes of her family. Hospital staff refused to wait until her mother could arrive to say goodbye. Tirhas Habtegiris, a young woman and legal immigrant from Africa, was concious and responsive when removed from a respirator and forced to die, against her wishes and against the wishes of her family, under a Texas law signed by then Governor George W. Bush for inability to pay her medical...

Under the law, Texas hospitals and physicians have the right to withdraw life support on a patient who they declare terminally ill, if that patient can not afford to pay within 10 days.[3]

See also

• Manslaughter

• Omission

• Suicide Act 1961

• Karl Binding

• Alfred Hoche

• Werner Catel

• Diane Pretty

• Futile Care Law

In the criminal law, an omission or failure to act will only constitute an actus reus (Latin for guilty act) and give rise to liability when the law imposes a duty to act and the defendant is in breach of that duty. ... The Suicide Act 1961 is a statute which decriminalised suicide in 1961, effective only in the United Kingdom. ... Karl Lorenz Binding (born June 4, 1841 in Frankfurt; died April 7, 1920 in Freiburg) was a German criminal jurist and a promoter of the theory of retributive justice. ... Alfred Erich Hoche (August 1, 1865 - May 16, 1943) was a German psychiatrist well-known for his writings about eugenics. ... Werner Catel was one of three Nazi doctors considered an expert on the programme of euthanasia for children, the other two being Hans Heinze and Ernst Wentzler. ... Diane Pretty (b. ...

References

1. Burdette, Amy M; Hill, Terrence D; Moulton, Benjamin E. Religion and Attitudes toward Physician-Assisted Suicide and Terminal Palliative Care. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 2005, 44, 1, Mar, 79-93.
2. Jennings, Patricia K.,Talley, Clarence R.. A Good Death?: White Privilege and Public Opinion. Race, Gender, & Class. New Orleans: Jul 31, 2003. Vol. 10, Iss. 3; pg. 42.
3. Moore, D. (2005 May 17). “Three in Four Americans Support Euthanasia.” The Gallup Organization.
4. Werth Jr., James L.; Blevins, Dean; Toussaint, Karine L.; Durham, Martha R. The influence of cultural diversity on end-of-life care and decisions. The American Behavioral Scientist; Oct 2002; 46, 2; pg 204-219.

External links

Neutral

• Euthanasia and Religion - various religious views of euthanasia
• Religion and Ethics - Euthanasia - many views of euthanasia, for, against, and religious

For euthanasia

• Compassion & Choices - provides education, support and advocacy for the choice-in-dying movement
• Dignity in Dying - leading campaigning organisation promoting patient choice at the end of life
• World Federation of Right To Die Societies
• Assisted Suicide
• Voluntary Euthanasia- Atheist Foundation of Australia Inc
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
• A defense of euthanasia

Against euthanasia

• euthanasia.com
• National Right to Life articles on euthanasia
• International Task Force against Euthanasia- many resources
• Non-religious arguments against euthanasia
• A Papal encyclical dealing with a number of issues of life and death including euthanasia

By country

Netherlands

• Official:
  • Ministry of Justice brochure on euthanasia and PAS (PDF, in Dutch)
  • Ministry of Health on euthanasia and PAS
  • Joint annual report 2003 of the Regional Euthanasia Review Conmmittees (PDF)
• For:
  • Right to Die-NL - Dutch union for voluntary termination of life NVVE
  • NRC Handelblad April 14, 2001 interview of Els Borst: Transparency in Euthanasia- Note that this is from an anti-euthanasia web site, but claims to be merely a translation of a Dutch article. Els Borst is a prominent Dutch advocate of Euthanasia.
• Against:
  • Clinical Problems with the Performance of Euthanasia and Physician-Assisted Suicide in the Netherlands, NEJM, February 24, 2000
  • Consultants or Facilitators? Medical Journal of Australia, 1999 Editorial- Cites original research, including that on alternative palliative care
  • Wall Street Journal Article on Dutch Euthanasia The article claims that unofficial Euthanasia is performed on as many as sixteen adults per day (90% of adult physician-assisted deaths), and 8% of all infants, often without patient consultation, according to Dutch statistics. This source claims that many old Dutch people are afraid to go to the hospital, citing the existence of cards stating Do Not Euthanize carried by some in the Netherlands.
  • Weekly Standard Article Claiming Unauthorized Euthanasia of Dutch Infants
  • December 18, 2000 National Review Opinion, Wesley Smith- Cites statistics showing frequent involuntary physician-assisted deaths in the Netherlands.

United States

• Oregon's Death with Dignity Act (State Website)
• Texas — The Futile Care Law

Canada

• The Euthanasia Prevention Coalition of Canada