Introduction

Exarch is from the Latin; Exarchus, Greek; Exarchon; Meaning Leader, from the word exarchein to lead, to begin, to rule.

In the Byzantine Empire, an exarch was a proconsul or viceroy who governed a province at some distance removed from the central authority) in Constantinople. The exarch combined both the civil and military authority to act quickly and decisively in the face of the immediate threats and dangers that confronted their area of the empire or exarchate. The Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... In the Byzantine Empire, an exarch was an essentially military viceroy who governed a part of the empire at some remove from the central (oriental) authorities, the Emperor and the Patriarch of Constantinople. ... For the Miocene ape, see Proconsul (genus) Under the Roman Empire a proconsul was a promagistrate filling the office of a consul. ... A viceroy is somebody who governs a country or province as a substitute for the monarch. ... Map of Constantinople. ...

Formation

The combination of civil and military authority made the exarchs extremely independent in action and control this gave them a propensity to rebel, which caused many headaches to the central imperial authorities. Several exarchs, such as Heraclius,and Gregory, both of Carthage. Sometimes rebellion was caused by imperial neglect, stemming from the fact that the empire had let the exarchates fend for themselves with little or no assistance from Constantinople. Heraclius and his sons Heraclius Constantine and Heraclonas. ... Gregory is a common masculine first name and family name. ...

Every division of the empire assigned Africa and Egypt to different emperors because of their significance as imperial breadbaskets. Usually, Egypt fed Constantinople and Africa fed Rome.

After the fall of the western empire in 476, the Eastern Roman Empire remained as a more stable and compact entity through the beginning of the Middle Ages and via the hard work of some of its emperors retained the necessary resources for future expansion. Justinian I reconquered North Africa, Italy, Dalmatia and finally parts of Spain for the Eastern Roman Empire. This astounding achievement created more harm than good, because the empire was now strectched beyond its resources. Subsequent emperors would not give up any of the re-conquered land to remedy the situation but would in turn fight tooth and nail to keep them. Thus the stage was set for Emperor Maurice, who should be called the great due to his reforms and vision to set up the exarchates to deal with the constantly evolving situation in the provinces now called exarchates. Events August - The usurper Basiliscus is deposed and Zeno is restored as Eastern Roman Emperor. ... Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered around its capital in Constantinople. ... Justinian I depicted on one of the famous mosaics of the St. ... A solidus of Maurices reign Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus or Maurice I (539 - November, 602) was the emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 582 to 602. ...

In Italy the Lombards were the main opposition to Byzantine power. In North Africa the Amazigh or Berber princes and peoples were ascendant due to Roman weakness ouside the coastal cities. The problems associated with many enemies on various fronts (the Visigoths in Spain, the Slavs and Avars in the Balkans, the Sassanid Persians in the Middle East, and the Amazigh in North Africa) forced the imperial government to decentralize and devolve power to the former provinces, now exarchates. The Lombards (Latin Langobardi, from which the alternative name Longobards found in older English texts), were a Germanic people originally from Scandinavia that entered the late Roman Empire. ... The Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... The Berbers (also called Imazighen, free men, singular Amazigh) are a predominantly Muslim ethnic group indigenous to the Maghreb, speaking the Berber languages of the Afroasiatic family. ... The Berbers (also called Imazighen, free men, singular Amazigh) are an ethnic group indigenous to Northwest Africa, speaking the Berber languages of the Afroasiatic family. ... The Visigoths, originally Tervingi, or Vesi (the noble ones), one of the two main branches of the Goths (of which the Ostrogothi were the other), were one of the loosely-termed Germanic peoples that disturbed the late Roman Empire. ... The Slavic peoples are the most numerous ethnic and linguistic body of peoples in Europe. ... The Eurasian Avars were a nomadic people of Eurasia who migrated into central and eastern Europe in the 6th century. ... Sassanid Empire at its greatest extent The Sassanid dynasty (also Sassanian) was the name given to the kings of Persia during the era of the second Persian Empire, from 224 until 651, when the last Sassanid shah, Yazdegerd III, lost a 14-year struggle to drive out the Umayyad Caliphate...

The term exarch most commonly refers to the Exarch of Ravenna, who governed the area of Italy and Dalmatia, still remaining under Byzantine control after the reconquest by Justinian. Ravenna is a city in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. ...

After the loss of the African exarchate after the seventh century Arab-Muslim onslaught, the Ravenna exarchate gained much more prominence as an imperial possession in the long struggle for Byzantine control of the Western Mediterranean. However, the term also includes the area of Africa governed by the exarch of Carthage, (Qart Hadasht). The ancient Phoenician city of Carthage was the main city of the province of Africa. The Byzantine Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Greek-speaking Roman Empire during the Middle Ages, centered at its capital in Constantinople. ... A map of the central Mediterranean Sea, showing the location of Carthage (near modern Tunis). ... Phoenicia was an ancient civilization in the north of ancient Canaan, with its heartland along the coastal plain of what is now Lebanon and Syria, between the Lebanon Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea. ... This article is about political regions. ... Categories: Historical stubs | Ancient Roman provinces ...

The exarchates were a response to the weakening of imperial authority in the provinces and were part of the overall militarization of the empire that would lead eventually to the creation of the themes or tagmata by Heraclius.

The Exarchs of Carthage

Carthage became the capital of the exarchate of Africa when Belisarius reconqured the area from the Vandals in 533, beating Gelimer in the successive battles of Ad Decimum and Ticameron. Like Ravenna, Carthage had an excellent harbor and shipyards with immediate access to the Mediterranean. The exarchate included the provinces of Africa, Byzacena, Mauretania Caesariensis, Mauretania Tingitana, Numidia, Sardinia, and Tripolitania. The borders of Tingitana were extended to include the southern tip of Spain (then called Mons Calpe, now called Gibraltar). and the Balearic Islands which had been part of the diocese of Hispania. A map of the central Mediterranean Sea, showing the location of Carthage (near modern Tunis). ... Belisarius, by Jacques-Louis David (1781); the depiction is now believed to be fictionalized. ... The Vandals were an East Germanic tribe that entered the late Roman Empire during the 5th century and created a state in North Africa, centered on the city of Carthage. ... Events February 1 - John becomes Pope, succeeding Pope Boniface II, who had died in 532. ... Gelimer (480-553), King of the Vandals and Alans from 530 to 534, was the last ruler of the North African Kingdom of the Vandals. ... Battle of Ad Decimum Conflict Wars of Justinian I Date September 13, 533 Place Near Carthage Result Roman victory The Battle of Ad Decimum took place on September 13, 533 between the armies of the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer and the eastern Roman Empire, under the command of general... The Battle of Ticameron took place on December 15, 533 between the armies of the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, and his brother Tzazon, and the eastern Roman Empire (later referred to as the Byzantine Empire), under the command of General Belisarius. ... Africa Province, Roman Empire ... At the end of the third century A.D., the Emperor Diocletian divided the great Roman province of Africa Proconsularis into smaller provinces, including Byzacena, corresponding now to the modern Sahel, region of Tunisia. ... In the first century A.D., the Emperor Claudius divided the Roman province of Mauretania into Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana. ... In the first century A.D., the Emperor Claudius divided the Roman province of Mauretania into Mauretania Caesariensis and Mauretania Tingitana. ... Numidia was an ancient African Berber kingdom and later a Roman province on the northern coast of Africa between the province of Africa (where Tunisia is now) and the province of Mauretania (which is now the western part of Algerias coastal area). ... Sardinia (Sardigna, Sardinna or Sardinnia in the Sardinian language, Sardegna in Italian, Sardenya in Catalan), is the second largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (Sicily is the largest), between Italy, Spain and Tunisia, south of Corsica. ... Tripolitania is a historic region of western Libya, centered around the coastal city of Tripoli. ... Capital Palma de Mallorca Official languages Catalan and Spanish Area  â€“ Total  â€“ % of Spain Ranked 17th  4 992 km²  1,0% Population  â€“ Total (2003)  â€“ % of Spain  â€“ Density Ranked 14th  916 968  2,2%  183,69/km² Demonym  â€“ English  â€“ Catalan  â€“ Spanish Balearic balear balear Statute of Autonomy March 1, 1983 ISO 3166... Pope Pius XI blesses Bishop Stephen Alencastre as fifth Apostolic Vicar of the Hawaiian Islands in a Cathedral of Our Lady of Peace window. ... Roman aqueduct in Segovia Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra and Gibraltar) and to two provinces created there in the period of the Roman Republic: Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior. ...

Civil and military authority were initially divided between a Praetorian prefect and a Magister Militum of Africa. The two positions were combined into the office of exarch under the reforms of Maurice in 584. Praetorian prefect (Latin Praefectus praetorio) was the constant title of a high office in the Roman state that changed fundamentally in nature. ... Magister militum (Master of the Soldiers) was a rank used in the later Roman Empire dating from the reign of Constantine. ... A solidus of Maurices reign Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus or Maurice I (539 - November, 602) was the emperor of the Byzantine Empire from 582 to 602. ... Events The Visigoths conquer the Suevi kingdom in Spain. ...

The African exarchate enjoyed much more stability and peace despite the tense relationship and sometimes violent confrontations that took place with many of the Amazigh tribes in the 7th century. Heraclius' attempt to move the capital from Constantinople to Carthage in 618 is proof of its stability.

The African exarchate experienced repeated conflict with the Amazigh (due to imperial rapaciousness and brutality) and with the Visigothic kingdom in Spain which was ever ready to and did invade and lead raids into the exarchate who also lead it's own counterraids against the Visigothic realm. The African exarch was in possesion of Mauretania II which was little more than a tiny outpost in southern Spain. The conflict continued unresolved until both the Roman exarchate and the Visigothic kingdom were conquered by the Muslims. The Visigoths were one of two main branches of the Goths, the Ostrogoths being the other. ...

Many of the Amazigh tribes, like the Aures and the principality of Masuna opposed Roman power, otherwise various of the other Amazigh tribes, including the off shoots of the Sanhaja and Zenata were allies.

During the successful revolt of the exarch of Carthage Heraclius in 608, the Amazigh comprised a large portion of the sailors and soldiers in the fleet that transported Heraclius to Constantinople. Due to religious and political ambitions, the Exarch Gregory (who ironically was related by blood to the imperial family, through the emperor’s cousin Nicetas) declared himself independent of Constantinople in 647. At this time the influence and power of the exarchate was exemplified in the forces gathered by Gregory in the battle of Sufetula also in that year where more than 100,000 men of Amazigh origin fought for Gregory.

The Arab Muslim Invasions

The Age of the Caliphs

The first Islamic invasions began with local initiative from Egypt or (Masri the borderland in Arabic) under the emir Amr Ibn Al-as and his nephew Uqba Ibn al Nafia al Fihri first as raids in order to procure slaves. Later on, sensing further Roman weakness pounced on Barqa, in Cyrenaica then succesively on to Tripolitania where they finally encountered more resistance from the imperial forces and it's Amazigh allies. Due to the unrest caused by christological disputes concerning, monolethism and monoenergism the exarchate under the rule of Gregory was channeling it's energies in distancing itself from the empire in open revolt. Carthage being literaly flooded with refugees from Egypt (especially Melkites), Palestine and Syria fleeing the Muslim onslaught exacerbated religious tensions and further raised the alarm to Gregory of the approaching Arab threat. Sensing that the more immediate danger came from the invading Muslim forces. who were running riot into his newly independent realm Gregory gathered his allies and forced a confrontation with the Muslims and was defeated at the aforementioned battle of Sufetula. The exarchate reverted to imperial rule after Gregory was killed in battle against the invading Muslims under Abdallah ibn al-Sa’ad at Sufetula causing the Arabs to rout the Roman forces. Afterwards the exarchate became a semi-client state under a new Exarch called Gennadius. A client state of the caliphate, that still maintained tributary status with Constantinople and Damascus, this strained the resources of the exarchate by overburdening it and causing unrest amongst the population due to the demands placed upon it. The African exarchate continued maintaining strong alliances with the local tribes in the area in spite of its defeat by the Arabs. The African exarchate's greatest source of manpower and strength was from the Amazigh tribes (i.e. the Sanhaja-Awrabi, Zenata, Shawia, Hoda et, al) The Arabs soon realized this and commenced a process of Islamization and conquest to undermine Roman power in Ifriqiya as they called the lands of the exarchate. Uqba ibn Nafi and Abu Muhajir al Dinar did much to promote Islam in the region. Image File history File links Age_of_Caliphs. ... Image File history File links Age_of_Caliphs. ... A Muslim is a believer in or follower of Islam. ... Uqba ibn Nafi (d. ...

Al Muhajir through the open hand of friendship and alliances, as well as promises of support against either other amazighs or the imperial forces. Al Nafia with the closed fist of warfare and terrorism, thereby inaugurating the first mosque in Al-Qairouan. The highest point reached by the exarchate with great assistance by its Amazigh allies headed by North African king Kaisula ait Lamazm, was the huge victory won over the forces of Uqba Ibn Nafia (and his death) at the battle of Biskra in 682 A.D. The victory was so total it caused the Muslim invaders to flee the exarchate all the way back to Egypt (very similar to the type of fighting that occurred during WW2) giving it, the exarchate, more than a decade free of major Muslim attacks. These alliances allowed the exarchate to withstand the recurring Muslim attacks. The repeated near 70 year confrontation between the Exarchate and it's Amazigh Allies against the Muslims and it's own Amazigh allies took it's toll on the dwindling and ever divided resources of the exarchate and culminated in the overrunning and destruction of the exarchate's main city, Carthage in 698 by the Muslim commander Hassan Ibn al Numan with a force of 40,000 men who came against the city's defenders, many of whom were curiously enough a contingent of Visigoths, no friends of the exarchate, who were sent to aid the Exarchate by their king, fearful of the dynamicmuslim threat. Many of these defenders fought to the death and in the ensuing battle Roman Carthage was again reduced to rubble, as it had been reduced to rubble by the Romans who now ironically tried to defend it.

The loss of the mainland portion of the African exarchate was an enormous blow to the Byzantine empire in the Western Mediterranean (Sicily, parts of southern Italy, Rome, Ravenna, Corsica, Sardinia and the Balearics remained as the exarchate of Africa), because both Carthage and Egypt, Constantinople's main sources of manpower and grain (in spite of sporadic raids and counter attacks by the Romans and Visigoths who then also feared the Arab Muslim threat) were now lost forever. Carthage had been a great center of Christian learning and Latin culture. This loss was also deeply felt. The Latin language gradually disappeared in North Africa to be replaced by Arabic. A Latin language would not return to North Africa until the arrival of the French in 1833. The Amazigh without the help of the Exarchate were now to confront the forces of the Islamic Caliphate alone.

See also

• Exarchate of Ravenna
• Catapanate of Italy

The Exarchate of Ravenna was a center of Byzantine power in Italy, from the end of the 6th century to 751 A.D., when the last Exarch was put to death by the Emperors enemies in Italy, the Lombards. ... In 890 the Byzantines defeated the Saracens in southern Italy. ...

External links and references

• The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
• Ibn Khaldun
• History of the Later Roman Empire by J. B. Bury Chapter XVII The Reconquest of Africa

[Talesoftamazghamezruy.blogspot.com] The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, a major literary achievement of Eighteenth Century, was written by the British historian, Edward Gibbon. ... Statue of Ibn Khaldun in front of the Cathedral of St Vincent De Paul in Tunis Ibn Khaldun, full name Abu Zayd Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Khaldun al-Hadrami (عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون الحضرمي), May 27, 1332/ah732 to March 19, 1406/ah808) was a famous Muslim historiographer and historian born in what...