Exemplar, in the sense developed by philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn, is a well known usage of a scientific theory. According to Kuhn, scientific practice alternates between periods of normal science and extraordinary/revolutionary science. During periods of normalcy, scientists tend to subscribe to a large body of interconnecting knowledge, methods, and assumptions which make up the reigning paradigm (see paradigm shift for more information on Kuhn's model). Normal science presents a series of "puzzles" that are solved as scientists explore their field. The solution to some of these puzzles become well known and are the exemplars of the field. The philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy which studies the philosophical foundations, assumptions, and implications of science, including the natural sciences such as physics and biology, and the social sciences, such as psychology and economics. ... Cover of a biography of Thomas Kuhn. ... In mathematics, theory is used informally to refer to a body of knowledge about mathematics. ... Normal science is a concept originated by Thomas Samuel Kuhn and elaborated in The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. ... Since the late 1800s, the word paradigm has referred to a thought pattern in any scientific discipline or other epistemological context. ... A paradigm shift is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn in his famous 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions to describe the process and result of a change in basic assumptions within the ruling theory of science. ...

Kuhn introduced the concept of exemplar in a postscript to the second edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. He noted that The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Thomas Kuhn, 1962) is an analysis of the history of science. ...

"[b]ecause the term [paradigm] has assumed a life of its own ... I shall here substitute ‘exemplars.’ By it I mean, initially, the concrete problem-solutions that students encounter from the start of their scientific education, whether in laboratories, on examinations, or at the ends of chapters in science texts. ... All physicists, for example, begin by learning the same exemplars: problems such as the inclined plane, the conical pendulum, and Keplerian orbits; instruments such as the vernier, the calorimeter, and the Wheatstone bridge."

Those who study a scientific discipline are expected to know its exemplars. There is no fixed set of exemplars, but for a physicist today it would certainly include such things as the harmonic oscillator from mechanics and the hydrogen atom from quantum mechanics. For a biologist today the set includes the population variations of the European pepper moth (Biston betularia) and the convergent evolution of wings. this article deals with the physical structure, not a canal inclined plane. ... Simple Gravity Pendulum assumues no air resistance and no friction of/at the nail/screw. ... Johannes Keplers primary contributions to astronomy/astrophysics were his three laws of planetary motion. ... A vernier scale lets one read more precisely from a measurement scale. ... A calorimeter is a device used for calorimetry, the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions or physical changes. ... A Wheatstone bridge is a measuring instrument invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833 and improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. ... A harmonic oscillator is either a mechanical system in which there exists a returning force F directly proportional to the displacement x, i. ... Mechanics refers to: a craft relating to machinery (from the Latin mechanicus, from the Greek mechanikos, meaning one skilled in machines), or a range of disciplines in science and engineering. ... A hydrogen atom is an atom of the element hydrogen. ... Fig. ... Binomial name Biston betularia Linnaeus, 1758 Subspecies betularia cognataria parva The peppered moth (Biston betularia) is a temperate species of night-flying moth often used by educators as an example of natural selection (see theory of evolution, industrial melanism). ... In evolutionary biology, convergent evolution describes the process whereby organisms not closely related independently acquire similar characteristics while evolving in separate and sometimes varying ecosystems. ...

See also

• Paradigm
• Paradigm shift
• Scientific consensus
• Theories and sociology of the history of science

Since the late 1800s, the word paradigm has referred to a thought pattern in any scientific discipline or other epistemological context. ... A paradigm shift is the term first used by Thomas Kuhn in his famous 1962 book The Structure of Scientific Revolutions to describe the process and result of a change in basic assumptions within the ruling theory of science. ... Scientific consensus is the majority agreement of the body of scientists in a particular field of science. ... The sociology and philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of science studies, have in the 20th century been preoccupied with the question of large-scale patterns and trends in the development of science, and asking questions about how science works both in a philosophical and practical sense. ...

References

• Thomas S. Kuhn (1970). The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. (2nd edn.) University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226458040.