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Existentialism is a philosophical movement emphasizing individualism, individual freedom, and subjectivity.
Overview
Camus emphasizes the idea of being present in the moment to make choices in his novel The Stranger, when Meursault exclaims "we are all privileged". It was inspired by the works of Søren Kierkegaard and the German philosophers Friedrich Nietzsche, Edmund Husserl, and Martin Heidegger, and was particularly popular around the mid-20th century with the works of the French writer and philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre and writer and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir. The main tenets of the movement are set out in Sartre's L'Existentialisme est un humanisme, translated as Existentialism is a Humanism.
Though many, if not most, existentialists were atheists, Søren Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers and Gabriel Marcel pursued more theological versions of existentialism. The one-time Marxist Nikolai Berdyaev developed a philosophy of Christian existentialism in his native Russia and later France during the decades preceding World War II.
Major concepts in existentialism
"Existence precedes and rules essence" Among the most famous and influential existentialist propositions is Sartre's dictum, "existence precedes and rules essence", which is generally taken to mean that there is no pre-defined essence to humanity except that which we make for ourselves. Since Sartrean existentialism does not acknowledge the existence of a god or of any other determining principle, human beings are free to do as they choose.
Since there is no predefined human nature or ultimate evaluation beyond that which humans project onto the world, people may only be judged or defined by their actions and choices, and human choices are the ultimate evaluator. This concept spins from Nietzsche's concept of eternal return—the idea that "things lose values because they cease to exist". If all things were to continually exist then they would all burden us with a tremendous level of importance, but because things come to pass, and no longer exist, they lose their value. The concept of Existence preceding essence is important because it describes the only conceivable reality as the judge of good or evil. If things simply "are", without directive, purpose or overall truth, then truth (or essence) is only the projection of that which is a product of existence, or collective experiences. For truth to exist, existence has to exist before it, making it not only the predecessor but the 'ruler' of its own objectivity."
Anguish In Sartre's jargon, anguish is the feeling one gets when one recognizes that one is responsible not only for oneself, but for all of mankind. Along with many of the other emotional states described by existentialists, anguish can be paralytic, and one of the goals of existentialism is to push people toward action even in the face of these emotions.
In existentialist philosophy, bad faith is an escape from anxiety and despair, etc. into a false or inauthentic way of existence. Bad Faith is noted by constant and bitter resentment. Those in Bad Faith, also known as "Falleness", have come to be such due to their knowledge of Transcendence (to use the Heideggarian term), but their inability to choose it. This bitter resentment is characterized by characters such as The Underground Man (Dostoyevsky) and Jean-Baptist Clemence (Camus).
Being for itself Being for itself, in Sartrean existentialism, is that part — part, though inseparable from the rest — of human existence that is self-defined. Viewing human existence as entirely self-defined is one way toward bad faith.
Being for others Being for others, in Sartrean existentialism, is that part of human existence that is social and socially defined. One path to bad faith is to view all of one's existence as disclosed through others.
Being in itself is the self-contained and fully realized Being of objects. It is to be contrasted with the being, or existence, of people. According to Sartre, human beings want to attain being in itself while retaining their freedom, a tendency he dubs "the desire to be God".
On the other hand, Heidegger in his "What is Metaphysics?" uses the German term Dasein, being-in-itself. To stumble upon Dasein - the essence of being, - one needs to compare it against the background of the Nothing, another Heidegger term. The Nothing is simply that, nonbeing and nonexistence. Through acknowledging the Nothing, one realizes the true being - Dasein.
Despair Sartre defines despair as the feeling resulting from the realization that there is no sure footing in the world, and we can never know the results of our actions beforehand.
Forlornness "When we speak of 'forlornness', a term Heidegger was fond of, we mean only that God does not exist and that we have to face all the consequences of this." (Existentialism is a Humanism) The feeling of forlornness stems from an individual's realization that he or she is alone in the world, unable to rely on anything absolutely.
Existentialism before 1970 In the 1950s and 1960s, existentialism experienced a resurgence of interest in popular artforms. In fiction, Jack Kerouac and the Beat poets adopted existentialist themes. Herman Hesse's Steppenwolf, based on an idea in Either/Or, sold well in the West, and "arthouse" films began to quote or allude to existentialist thinkers. At the same time that the students of Paris found in Sartre a hero for the May 1968 demonstrations, others were appropriating the pessimistic themes found in Albert Camus and Kierkegaard. The despair of choice and the despair of the unknowing self featured prominently (often in a pidgin form) in numerous films and novels.
Existentialism since 1970 Although postmodernist thought had become the focus of intellectuals during the 1970s and thereafter (there is still debate as to whether the movement is strong today, and to what, if anything, has replaced it), many postmodernist writing contained strong elements of existentialism, which is not surprising, since postmodernism evolved out of the thinking of Nietzsche and Heidegger, two of the greatest of existential philosophers (though Heidegger would never have labeled himself as an Existentialist).
One should, however, not confuse Post-Modernism with Existentialism. Films with Post-Modern themes such as The Matrix, mimic the idea of a simulacrum, which has to do with reality and appearance and how the latter makes the former indistinguishable, if it can sufficentily mimic it (The Matrix film even going so far to make this point clear as to include a copy of Baudrillard's 'Simulacra and Simulation' in the background of the protagonist's apartment). Existential films, on the other hand, deal more with the themes of:
- Retaining authenticity in a mechanical, apathetic world (something Post-Modernism would staunchly reject, as authenticity relates to a "reality" that does not exist).
- The consciousness of death (Heidegger's 'being towards death', exemplified in Ingmar Bergman's film "The Seventh Seal").
- The feelings of alienation and loneliness that come about from being unique in a world of many, (or to use Nietzsche's phrase "herd-animals")
- The concept, which Heidegger explicated in Sein und Zeit (Being and Time) of Alltagliche selbstsein (Everydayness).
However, a great deal of cultural activity in art, film and literature since 1970 contains both Post-Modern and Existential elements (which, ironically, would support the Post-Modern thesis of "borderlessness between concepts"). Books and films such as Fight Club (Palahniuk), Blade Runner (Scott) and The Neverending Story (Ende) all distort the line between reality and appearance, but at the same time, espouse strong existential themes. In the film industry, Post-Modern techniques of editing (to show the displacement, discontinuity and perspectiveness of time that is typical of Post-Modernism) can go hand-in-hand with a purely Existential story, thus serving as a synthesis between the two in terms of technique and function. Moreover, this has served to brand a new term "Neo-Existentialism", that combines both the epistemological elements of Post-Modern thought with the reflective ontological beliefs of Existentialism. As for the future state of Existentialism, it is sure that so long as there are men that live, there will be men that die, and so long as there is that, there will be Existentialism for those who think, ponder and become nauseated over that unfortunate, if not liberating, fact.
Criticisms of existentialism - The opponents of existentialism assert that it fosters the particularization of human beings, stripping them of a universal sense of identity, which is entirely consistent with the claims of existentialists that the only universal allowed for human beings is their fundamental freedom.
- Another view is simply that existentialists are insane, which, many existentialists would reply, is correct, but, they would retort, only if you considered a lack of desire to live the traditional office life as reducible to insanity.
- And, the most famous criticism of existentialism is by Theodor Adorno, who in the fashion of Schopenhauer's critique of Hegel, regarded Existentialism as inane, mostly in regards to Heidegger's usage of language. However, there are thinkers such as Camus who write rather simplistically and without artifice, and whose terms such as "Nothingness" are linguistically justified by a simple glance to the past, or to the future.
Major thinkers and authors associated with the movement
Novelists and playwrights
Philosophers
Psychologists
Theologians
See also
External links - Essays on Existentialism (http://web.archive.org/web/20040205085207/http://www.columbia.edu/~ta63/exist.htm)
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