An exoskeleton, in contrast to an endoskeleton, is an external anatomical feature that supports and protects an animal's body. All arthropods (such as insects, spiders and crustaceans) and many other invertebrate animals (such as shelled mollusks) have exoskeletons. Lobsters, for example, have tough outer shell systems which provide rigidity and shape to their bodies, in addition to an endoskeleton. The endoskeleton of arthropods is continuous with and an extension of the exoskeleton and is shed at the same time as the exoskeleton. Endoskeleton of a swordfish An endoskeleton is an internal support structure of an animal. ... Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the Encyclopédie. ... Phyla Subregnum Parazoa Porifera (sponges) Subregnum Agnotozoa Placozoa (trichoplax) Orthonectida (orthonectids) Rhombozoa (dicyemids) Subregnum Eumetazoa Radiata (unranked) (radial symmetry) Ctenophora (comb jellies) Cnidaria (coral, jellyfish, anemones) Bilateria (unranked) (bilateral symmetry) Acoelomorpha (basal) Orthonectida (parasitic to flatworms, echinoderms, etc. ... Subphyla and Classes Arthropods (phylum Arthropoda) (from Greek ἀρθρον, meaning joint and πούς/ποδός, meaning foot) are the largest phylum of animals and include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and others. ... Classes & Orders See taxonomy Insects are invertebrate animals of the Class Insecta, the largest and (on land) most widely-distributed taxon within the phylum Arthropoda. ... Suborders Araneomorphae Mesothelae Mygalomorphae See the taxonomy section for families Spiders are predatory invertebrate animals that produce silk, and have two tagma, eight legs, no chewing mouth parts and no wings. ... Classes & Subclasses Branchiopoda Phyllopoda Sarsostraca Remipedia Cephalocarida Maxillopoda Thecostraca Tantulocarida Branchiura Pentastomida Mystacocarida Copepoda Ostracoda Myodocopa Podocopa Malacostraca Phyllocarida Hoplocarida Eumalacostraca The crustaceans (Crustacea) are a large group of arthropods (55,000 species), usually treated as a subphylum [1]. They include organisms such as lobsters, crabs, shrimp and barnacles. ... Invertebrate is a term coined by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck to describe any animal without a spinal column. ... Classes Caudofoveata Aplacophora Polyplacophora - Chitons Monoplacophora Bivalvia - Bivalves Scaphopoda - Tusk shells Gastropoda - Snails and Slugs Cephalopoda - Squids, Octopuses, etc. ... Subfamilies and Genera Neophoberinae Acanthacaris Thymopinae Nephropsis Nephropides Thymops Thymopsis Nephropinae Homarus Nephrops Homarinus Metanephrops Eunephrops Thymopides Clawed lobsters comprise a family (Nephropidae, sometimes also Homaridae) of large marine crustaceans. ...

An insect's exoskeleton (integument) serves not only as a protective covering (armour) over the body but also as a surface for muscle attachment, a water-tight barrier against desiccation and a sensory interface with the environment. It is a multi-layered structure with four functional regions: epicuticle, procuticle, epidermis and basement membrane.^[1] Note that, while the arthropod exoskeleton is chitin-based, it is not composed entirely of chitin. In fact, the membranous portions of the exoskeleton and endoskeleton are closer to pure chitin than the hardened external sclerites. An integument is an outer protective covering such as the feathers or skin of an animal or rind or shell. ... Armour in animals is external or superficial protection against attack by predators, formed as part of the body (rather than the behavioural use of protective external objects), usually through the hardening of body tissues, outgrowths or secretions. ... Epidermis could refer to: In plants, the outermost layer of cells covering the leaves and young parts of a plant is the epidermis. ... It has been suggested that Net flux be merged into this article or section. ... Structure of chitin molecule Chitin (IPA: ) is one of the main components in the cell walls of fungi, the exoskeletons of insects and other arthropods, and in some other animals. ... Sclerites are hardened body parts. ...

Humans have long used armour as an artificial exoskeleton for protection, especially in combat. Exoskeletal machines are also used for medical and industrial purposes. Powered human exoskeletons are a feature of science fiction writing. Orthoses are a form of exoskeleton. Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin for wise man or knowing man) under the family Hominidae (the great apes). ... Armour or armor (see spelling differences) is protective clothing intended to defend its wearer from intentional harm in combat and military engagements, typically associated with soldiers. ... Conceptual drawing of an exoskeleton produced by the U.S Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. ... An orthosis is a device that is applied to a part of the body to correct deformity, improve function, or relieve symptoms of a disease. ...

Natural exoskeletons

Types of exoskeletons

The head of an ant

• Bone and cartilage
  • Armoured fish
  • Turtles, Terrapins and Tortoises
• Chitin
  • Arthropods
  • some Bacteria
• Calcium compounds
  • Corals
  • Echinoderms
  • Mollusks
  • some Polychaetes
• Silicate
  • Diatoms
  • Radiolaria

A photo of an ant head taken with a Scanning Electron Microscope [1] File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... A photo of an ant head taken with a Scanning Electron Microscope [1] File history Legend: (cur) = this is the current file, (del) = delete this old version, (rev) = revert to this old version. ... Subfamilies Aenictinae Aenictogitoninae Aneuretinae Apomyrminae Cerapachyinae Dolichoderinae Dorylinae Ecitoninae Formicinae Leptanillinae Leptanilloidinae Myrmeciinae Myrmicinae Nothomyrmeciinae Ponerinae Pseudomyrmecinae Ants are one of the most successful groups of insects in the animal kingdom. ... Grays illustration of a human femur, a typically recognized bone. ... Cartilage is a type of dense connective tissue. ... Suborders Cryptodira Pleurodira See text for families. ... Wiktionary has related dictionary definitions, such as: terrapin Terrapin may mean: An amphibious reptile turtle, which spends its time both in the water and on land. ... Genera Chersina Dipsochelys Furculachelys Geochelone Gopherus Homopus Indotestudo Kinixys Malacochersus Manouria Psammobates Pyxis Testudo A tortoise is a land-dwelling reptile of the order Testudines. ... Structure of chitin molecule Chitin (IPA: ) is one of the main components in the cell walls of fungi, the exoskeletons of insects and other arthropods, and in some other animals. ... Subphyla and Classes Arthropods (phylum Arthropoda) (from Greek ἀρθρον, meaning joint and πούς/ποδός, meaning foot) are the largest phylum of animals and include the insects, arachnids, crustaceans, and others. ... Subgroups Actinobacteria Aquificae Bacteroidetes/Chlorobi Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia Chloroflexi Chrysiogenetes Cyanobacteria Deferribacteres Deinococcus-Thermus Dictyoglomi Fibrobacteres/Acidobacteria Firmicutes Fusobacteria Gemmatimonadetes Nitrospirae Planctomycetes Proteobacteria Spirochaetes Thermodesulfobacteria Thermomicrobia Thermotogae Bacteria (singular: bacterium) are a major group of living organisms. ... General Name, Symbol, Number calcium, Ca, 20 Chemical series alkaline earth metals Group, Period, Block 2, 4, s Appearance silvery white Atomic mass 40. ... Subclasses Alcyonaria Zoantharia See text for orders. ... Classes Asteroidea Blastoidea (extinct) Concentricycloidea Crinoidea Echinoidea Holothuroidea Ophiuroidea The echinoderms (Echinodermata)(Greek from spiny skin) are a phylum of marine animals found in the ocean at all depths. ... Classes Caudofoveata Aplacophora Polyplacophora Monoplacophora Bivalvia Scaphopoda Gastropoda Cephalopoda † Rostroconchia The mollusks or molluscs are the large and diverse phylum Mollusca, which includes a variety of familiar creatures well-known for their decorative shells or as seafood. ... Orders Amphinomida Capitellida Chaetopterida Cirratulida Cossurida Ctenodrillidae Eunicida Flabelligerida Magelonida Myzostomida Nerillida Opheliida Orbiniida Orweniida Phyllodocida Pisionidae Polygordiida Protodrilida Psammodrilidae Sabellida Spionida Spintheridae Sternaspida Terebellida Tomopteris from plankton The Polychaeta or Polychaetes are a class of annelid worms, generally marine, with a pair of fleshy protrusions on each body segment... In chemistry, a silicate is a compound consisting of silicon and oxygen (SixOy), one or more metals, and possibly hydrogen. ... Diatoms (Gr. ... Possible classes Polycystinea Acantharea Taxopodea Radiolaria are amoeboid protozoa that produce intricate mineral skeletons, typically with a central capsule dividing the cell into inner and outer portions, called endoplasm and ectoplasm. ...

Moulting

An exoskeleton may interfere with an animal's growth. To overcome this, arthropods go through a process called ecdysis in which they shed their exoskeleton and replace it with a new, larger one. Ecdysis is the molting of the cuticula in arthropods and related groups (Ecdysozoa). ...

Excellent as a principle of defence, exoskeletons may nevertheless cause problems where entities carry an excessive weight to surface-area ratio or whenever organism growth requires an enlargement of the exoskeleton.

Artificial human exoskeletons

Exoskeletons in history

Medieval armour (in the case of mounted knights) is not load-bearing, but furnishes the appearance of an artificial human exoskeleton. Armour or armor (see spelling differences) is protective clothing intended to defend its wearer from intentional harm in combat and military engagements, typically associated with soldiers. ...

Exoskeletal devices in medicine

An orthosis (plural orthoses) is a device which attaches to a limb, or the torso, to support the function or correct the shape of that limb or the spine. Orthotics is the field dealing with orthoses, their use, and their manufacture. An orthotist is a person who designs and fits orthoses. An orthosis is a device that is applied to a part of the body to correct deformity, improve function, or relieve symptoms of a disease. ... Orthotics is the medical field concerned with the application and manufacture of orthoses, devices which support or correct the function of a limb or the torso. ...

A limb prosthesis (plural prostheses) is a device that substitutes for a missing part of a limb. If the prosthesis is a hollow shell and self-carrying, it is exoskeletal. If internal tubes are used in the device and the cover (cosmesis) to create the outside shape is made of a soft, non-carrying material, it is endoskeletal. Prosthetics is the field that deals with prostheses, use, and their manufacture. A prosthetist is a person who designs and fits prostheses. A United States soldier demonstrates Foosball with two prosthetic limbs In medicine, a prosthesis is an artificial extension that replaces a missing part of the body. ... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Plastic Surgery. ... A United States soldier demonstrates Foosball with two prosthetic limbs In medicine, a prosthesis is an artificial extension that replaces a missing part of the body. ...

Exoskeletons in modern and near-future technology

See Artificial powered exoskeleton. Conceptual drawing of an exoskeleton produced by the U.S Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. ...

References

1. ^ NC State University

External links

Biology

• Geometry and Pattern in Nature 3: The holes in radiolarian and diatom tests

Modern technology

• Bionic Boots
• PowerSkip
• Berkeley Lower Extremity Exoskeleton (BLEEX)
• University of Washington Exo Arm Project