Siege of Constantinople
Part of the Byzantine-Ottoman wars
The Siege of Constantinople (painted 1499).
Date April 2–May 29, 1453 Location Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) Result Decisive Ottoman victory, end of the Byzantine Empire
Combatants
Byzantine Empire	Ottoman Sultanate
Commanders
Constantine XI †, Loukas Notaras, Giovanni Giustiniani †[1]	Mehmed II, Zağanos Pasha
Strength
80,000[2]	80,000[1]-200,000[1][3]
Casualties
4,000 dead[4] [5][6]	unknown

The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of the Byzantine Empire's capital by the Ottoman Empire on Tuesday, May 29, 1453. The event marked the end of the political independence of the millennium-old Byzantine Empire, which was by then already fragmented into several Greek monarchies.^[7] Most importantly, the fall of Constantinople accelerated the scholarly exodus of Byzantine Greeks which caused the influx of Classical Greek Studies into the European Renaissance.^[8] In addition, it played a crucial role in Ottoman political stability and its subsequent expansion in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. The date of the event is one of the frequently proposed events marking the end of the Middle Ages as a historical period. Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks The Byzantine Ottoman wars was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Turks and the Byzantines that led to the final destruction of the Byzantine empire and the rise of the Ottoman empire. ... The Fall of Constantinople, 1453 Source: http://www. ... is the 92nd day of the year (93rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... is the 149th day of the year (150th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... April 2 - Mehmed II begins his siege of Constantinople (Ä°stanbul). ... This article is about the city before the Fall of Constantinople (1453). ... Istanbul (Turkish: , Greek: , historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see other names) is Turkeys most populous city, and its cultural and financial center. ... Combatants  Byzantine Empire Ottoman Sultanate Commanders Constantine XI †, Loukas Notaras, Giovanni Giustiniani †[1] Mehmed II, ZaÄŸanos Pasha Strength 7,000[2] 80,000[1]-200,000[1][3] Casualties 4,000 dead[4] 10,000 civilian dead[5][6] unknown The Fall of Constantinople refers to the capture of... Image File history File links Flag_of_Palaeologus_Emperor. ... Byzantine redirects here. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Ottoman redirects here. ... Constantine XI: The last Byzantine emperor is considered a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church. ... Loukas Notaras (Greek Λουκάς Νοταράς) (?-3 or 4 June 1453) was the last Megas Doux of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. ... Giovanni Giustiniani was a Genoese captain during the Middle Ages. ... Mehmed II (Ottoman Turkish: محمد ثانى , Turkish: ), (also known as el-Fatih (الفاتح), the Conqueror, in Ottoman Turkish, or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet) (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481. ... ZaÄŸanos Pasha was one of the prominent military commanders of Mehmet II (Mehmet the Conqueror) and a lala, at once an advisor, mentor, tutor, councilors, protector, for the sultan. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks The Byzantine Ottoman wars was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Turks and the Byzantines that led to the final destruction of the Byzantine empire and the rise of the Ottoman empire. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks Commanders Michael IX Osman I The Battle of Bapheus occurred in July 27, 1302 between an Ottoman army under Osman I and a Byzantine army. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks In 1303, the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus II hired 6,500 Catalan mercenaries under Roger de Flor to campaign against the Turks in the Spring and Summer of 1303. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks Commanders Unknown Osman I, Orhan I The Siege of Brusa occurred in 1326, when the Ottomans deployed a bold plan to seize Brusa. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks Commanders Andronicus III Orhan I The Battle of Pelekanon or Battle of Pelekanos occurred on June 10-11, 1329 between an expeditionary force by the Byzantines led by Andronicus III and an Ottoman army led by Orhan I. The Byzantines were defeated, with no further... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders Andronicus II then Andronicus III Osman I Orhan I Strength Unknown Unknown Casualties Heavy Unknown, assumed light For other uses, see Siege of Nicaea (disambiguation) The Siege of Nicaea by the forces of Osman I from 1328 to 1331, resulted to the conquest of... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders Andronicus III Orhan I Strength Very few Unknown Casualties Unknown Unknown, assumed light // From 1299, the newly founded Turkic state of the Ottomans had been slowly but surely capturing territory from the Byzantine Greeks. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks Commanders Unknown Suleyman Pasha Gallipoli fell to the Ottomans in 1354. ... Winning the Battle of Adrianople (1365), Ottoman Turks capture Adrianople. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks Strength 10,000 in 1261 down to 7,000 in 1321 less than a 1,000 professionals by 1453 Unknown The Byzantine-Ottoman wars were a series of decisive conflicts between the Ottoman Turks and the Byzantine Greeks that led to the final destruction of... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Empire Commanders John I Palaiologos Murad II Strength Unknown Unknown Casualties Unknown Unknown The Fifth Ottoman Siege of Constantinople took place in 1422 as a result of the Byzantine Emperor Manuel IIs attempts to interfere in the succession of Ottoman Sultans, after the death of... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks The siege of Thessalonika was ultimately a successful attempt by the Ottoman Empire under Murad II to take Thessalonika and punish the Palaeologoi for their attempts at inciting rebellion within the Ottoman ranks. ... Ottoman redirects here. ... is the 149th day of the year (150th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... April 2 - Mehmed II begins his siege of Constantinople (Ä°stanbul). ... Byzantine redirects here. ... This article is about the city before the Fall of Constantinople (1453). ... Byzantine Greeks or Byzantines, is a conventional term used by modern historians to refer to the medieval Greek or Hellenized citizens of the Byzantine Empire, centered mainly in Constantinople, southern Balkans, the Greek islands, the coasts of Asia Minor (modern Turkey) and the large urban centres of Near East and... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... By Region: Italian Renaissance Northern Renaissance -French Renaissance -German Renaissance -English Renaissance The Renaissance was an influential cultural movement which brought about a period of scientific revolution and artistic transformation, at the dawn of modern European history. ... This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ...

State of the Byzantine Empire

In the approximately 1,100 years of the existence of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople had been besieged many times but had been captured only once, during the Fourth Crusade in 1204. The crusaders had most likely not intended to conquer Byzantium from the beginning, and an unstable Latin state was established in Constantinople for a short period of time. The Byzantine Empire fell apart into a number of Greek successor states, notably Nicaea, Epirus and Trebizond. The Greek states fought as allies against the Latin establishments but also as rivals against each other over the Byzantine throne. The Nicaean Greeks were finally the first to re-conquer Constantinople from the Latins in 1261. In the following two centuries, the much-weakened Byzantine Empire was facing threats from the Latins, the Serbians, the Bulgarians and most importantly, the Ottoman Turks. In 1453 the "empire" consisted of little more than the city of Constantinople itself and a portion of the Peloponnese (centered on the fortress of Mystras); the Empire of Trebizond, a completely independent successor state formed in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade also survived on the coast of the Black Sea. Byzantine redirects here. ... The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople (Eugène Delacroix, 1840). ... The Latin Empire, Empire of Nicaea, Empire of Trebizond and the Despotate of Epirus. ... The Empire of Nicaea was the largest of the states founded by refugees from the Byzantine Empire after Constantinople was conquered during the Fourth Crusade. ... The Despotate of Epirus was one of the medieval Greek successor states of the Byzantine Empire, founded in the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade in 1204. ... The Empire of Trebizond and other states carved from the Byzantine Empire, as they were in 1265 (William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 1911) The Empire of Trebizond (Greek: Βασίλειον τῆς Τραπεζούντας) was a Byzantine Greek successor state of the Byzantine Empire founded in 1204 as a result of the capture of Constantinople by... Greece and the Peloponnese The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus (Greek: Πελοπόννησος Peloponnesos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large peninsula in southern Greece, forming the part of the country south of the Gulf of Corinth. ... Mystras (also Mistra, Mystra and Mistras Greek: Μυστράς, Μυζηθράς Mizithras or Myzithras in the chronicle of Morea ) was a fortified town in Morea (the Peloponnesus), on Mt. ... The Empire of Trebizond and other states carved from the Byzantine Empire, as they were in 1265 (William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 1911) The Empire of Trebizond (Greek: Βασίλειον τῆς Τραπεζούντας) was a Byzantine Greek successor state of the Byzantine Empire founded in 1204 as a result of the capture of Constantinople by... It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into Succession of states. ... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ...

Preparations

The Byzantine Empire in the first half of the 15th century. Thessaloniki was captured by the Ottomans in 1430. A few islands in the Aegean and the Propontis remained under Byzantine rule until 1453 (not shown on the map).

When Sultan Murad II was succeeded by his son Mehmed II in early 1451, it was widely believed that the new sultan would turn out to be an incapable ruler who could pose no great threat to Christian possessions in the Balkans and the Aegean.^[9] This belief was reinforced by Mehmed's friendly assurances to envoys that were sent to him at the assumption of his reign. His promise to respect Byzantine territorial integrity, however, soon proved false. During the spring and summer of 1452, sultan Mehmed II, whose great grand-father Bayezid I had previously built a fortress on the Asian side of the Bosporus called Anadolu Hisarı, now built a second castle outside the walls of Constantinople on the European side, which would increase Turkish influence on the straits. An especially relevant aspect of this fortress was its ability to prevent help from Genoese colonies on the Black Sea coast from reaching the city. This castle was called Rumeli Hisarı; Rumeli and Anadolu being the names of European and Asian portions of the Ottoman Empire, respectively. The new fortress is also known as Boğazkesen which has a dual meaning in Turkish; strait-blocker or throat-cutter, emphasizing its strategic position. The Greek name of the fortress, Laimokopia, also bears the same double-meaning. Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... Image File history File links This is a lossless scalable vector image. ... The Sea of Marmara (Turkish: Marmara denizi, Modern Greek: Μαρμαρα̃ Θάλασσα or Προποντίδα) (also known as the Sea of Marmora or the Marmara Sea) is an inland sea... Murad II (June 1404, Amasya – February 3, 1451, Edirne) (Ottoman Turkish: مراد ثانى Murād-ı sānÄ«, Turkish:) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1421 to 1451 (except for a period from 1444 to 1446). ... Mehmed II (Ottoman Turkish: محمد ثانى , Turkish: ), (also known as el-Fatih (الفاتح), the Conqueror, in Ottoman Turkish, or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet) (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481. ... // Events February 3 - Murad II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire dies and is succeeded by his son Mehmed II. April 11 - Celje acquires market-town status and town rights by orders from the Celje count Frederic II. June 30 - French troops under the Comte de Dunois invade Guyenne and capture... Events October - English troops under John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, land in Guyenne, France, and retake most of the province without a fight. ... // Bayezid I (Ottoman: بايزيد الأول, Turkish: Beyazıt, nicknamed Yıldırım (Ottoman: ییلدیرم), the Thunderbolt; 1354–1403) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1389 to 1402. ... For other uses, see Asia (disambiguation). ... I LOVE BORAT!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Two bridges cross the Bosporus. ... Anadoluhisari is a castle in Istanbul Strait, Bosporus. ... For other uses, see Castle (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Genoa (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Black Sea (disambiguation). ... Rumelihisari, seen from the Bosporus. ... Map of Rumelia as of 1801 Rumelia (turkish: Rum: Roman El: Land Rumeli: Lands of Rome), the area that was the East Roman or Byzantine Empire, a name commonly used, from the 15th century onwards, to denote the part of the Balkan Peninsula subject to the Ottoman Empire. ... Anatolia and Europe Anatolia (Turkish: from Greek: Ανατολία - Anatolia) is a peninsula of Western Asia which forms the greater part of the Asian portion of Turkey, as opposed to the European portion (Thrace, or traditionally Rumelia). ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... For other uses, see Asia (disambiguation). ...

Constantine appealed to Western Europe for help, but his request did not meet the expected attention. Ever since the mutual excommunication of the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches in 1054, the Roman Catholic west had been trying to re-integrate the east; union had been attempted before at Lyons in 1274 and, indeed, some Paleologan emperors had been received in the Latin Church since. Emperor John VIII Palaeologus had attempted to negotiate Union with Pope Eugene IV, and the Council held in 1439 resulted in the proclamation, in Florence, of a Bull of Union. In the following years, a massive propaganda initiative was undertaken by anti-unionist forces in Constantinople and the population as well as the leadership of the Byzantine church was in fact bitterly divided. Latent ethnic hatred between Greeks and Italians stemming from the events of 1204 and the sack of Constantinople by the Latins, also played a significant role, and finally the Union failed, greatly annoying Pope Nicholas V and the Roman Catholic church. For the later Papal Schism in Avignon, see Western Schism. ... ... The Roman Catholic Church, most often spoken of simply as the Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with over one billion members. ... The Second Council of Lyon was a Roman Catholic council convened in Lyon in 1274. ... Medal of the emperor during his visit to Florence, by Pisanello (1438). ... Eugenius IV, né Gabriel Condulmer (1383 - February 23, 1447) was pope from March 3, 1431 to his death. ... The Council of Basel was a council of bishops and other ecclesiastics of the Roman Catholic Church that was held at Basel, Switzerland. ... This article is about the city in Italy. ... Ethnic hatred, inter-ethnic hatred, racial hatred, or ethnic tension refers to sentiments and acts of prejudice and hostility towards an ethnic group in various degrees. ... The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople (Eugène Delacroix, 1840). ... Nicholas V, né Tomaso Parentucelli (November 15, 1397 – March 24, 1455) was Pope from March 6, 1447, to his death. ...

Map of Constantinople and its land walls

In the summer of 1452, when Rumeli Hisari was completed and the threat had become imminent, Constantine wrote to the pope, promising to implement the Union. However, although he was eager to help, Pope Nicholas V did not have the influence the Byzantines thought he had over the Western Kings and princes, and these had not the wherewithal to contribute to the effort, especially in light of France and England being weakened from the Hundred Years' War, Iberian Kingdoms being in the final part of the Reconquista, the internecine fighting in the German Principalities, and Hungary and Poland's defeat at the Battle of Varna of 1444. Although some troops did arrive from the mercantile city states in the north of Italy, the Western contribution was not adequate to counterbalance the Ottoman strength. Some Western individuals, however, came to help defend the city out of their own account; one of them was an accomplished soldier from Genoa, Giovanni Giustiniani, who arrived with 700 armed men in January 1453.^[10] A specialist in defending walled cities, he was immediately given the overall command of the defense of the land walls by the emperor. Around the same time, the captains of the Venetian ships which happened to be present in the Golden Horn offered their services to the Emperor, barring contrary orders from Venice, and Pope Nicholas undertook to send three ships laden with provisions, which set sail near the end of March.^[11] In Venice, meanwhile, deliberations were taking place concerning the kind of assistance the republic would lend to Constantinople. The Senate decided upon sending a fleet, but there were delays, and when it finally set out late in April, it was already too late for it to be able to partake in the battle.^[12] Download high resolution version (800x650, 54 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Download high resolution version (800x650, 54 KB) Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ... Sections of the Theodosian walls of Constantinople as they appear today in suburban Istanbul The Walls of Constantinople surrounded the Roman and Byzantine city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey). ... For other uses, see England (disambiguation). ... Combatants France Castile Scotland Genoa Majorca Bohemia Crown of Aragon Brittany England Burgundy Brittany Portugal Navarre Flanders Hainaut Aquitaine Luxembourg Holy Roman Empire The Hundred Years War was a conflict between France and England, lasting 116 years from 1337 to 1453. ... Motto (Latin) Further Beyond Anthem  1(Spanish) Royal March Spain() – on the European continent() – in the European Union() Capital (and largest city) Madrid Official languages Spanish2 Demonym Spanish, Spaniard Government Constitutional monarchy  -  Head of State King Juan Carlos I  -  President of the Government Formation 15th century   -  Dynastic union 1516   -  Unification... For other senses of this word, see Reconquista (disambiguation). ... This article is about the medieval empire. ... Combatants Hungary, Poland and others Ottoman Empire Commanders WÅ‚adysÅ‚aw III of Poland † Janos Hunyadi Murad II Strength ~ 20,000-30,000 ~ 60,000[1][2] Casualties ~ 11,000 ~ 8,000 The Battle of Varna took place on November 10, 1444 near Varna in eastern Bulgaria. ... Giovanni Giustiniani was a Genoese captain during the Middle Ages. ...

Odds

The army defending Constantinople was small; it totalled about 7,000 men, 2,000 of whom were foreigners.^[13] The city had about 20 km of walls (Theodosian Walls: 5.5 km; sea walls along the Golden Horn: 7 km; sea walls along the Sea of Marmara: 7.5 km), probably the strongest set of fortified walls in existence at the time. The walls had recently been repaired (under John VIII) and were in fairly good shape. In addition, the defenders were relatively well-equipped. The defenders also had a fleet of 26 ships: 5 from Genoa, 5 from Venice, 3 from Venetian Crete, 1 from Ancona, 1 from Spain, 1 from France, and about 10 Byzantine.^[14] The Ottomans, on the other hand, had a larger force. It was thought to number around 100,000 men, including 20,000 Janissaries; recent estimates span between 80,000 soldiers and 5,000 Janissaries^[15] and 150,000 soldiers, including mounted troops and 6,000-10,000 Janissaries.^[1] Contemporary witnesses of the siege provide higher numbers for the military power of the sultan^[1] (Nicolò Barbaro: 160,000;^[16] the Florentine merchant Jacopo Tedaldi^[17] and the Great Logothete George Sphrantzes:^[18] 200,000; the cardinal Isidore of Kiev^[19] and the archbishop of Mytilene Leonardo di Chio:^[20] 300,000). Mehmed also built a fleet to besiege the city from the sea (partially manned by Greek sailors from Gallipoli^[15]). Contemporary estimates of the strength of the Ottoman fleet span between about 100 ships (Tedaldi^[17]), 145 (Barbaro^[16]), 160 (Ubertino Pusculo^[21]), 200-250 (Isidore of Kiev,^[19] Leonardo di Chio^[20]) to 430 (Sphrantzes^[18]). A realistic report puts the total at 6 large galleys, 10 ordinary galleys, 15 smaller galleys, 75 large rowing boats, and 20 horse-transports.^[22] Sections of the Theodosian walls of Constantinople as they appear today in suburban Istanbul The Walls of Constantinople surrounded the Roman and Byzantine city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey). ... View of Golden Horn from Eyup Sultan Cemetery The Golden Horn (in Turkish Haliç, in Greek Khrysokeras or Chrysoceras or Χρυσοκερας) is an estuary dividing the city of Istanbul. ... Map of the Sea of Marmara Satellite view of the Sea of Marmara The Sea of Marmara (Turkish: Marmara Denizi, Modern Greek: Θάλασσα του Μαρμαρά or Προποντίδα) (also known as the Sea of Marmora or the Marmara Sea) is an inland sea that connects the Black Sea to the Aegean Sea, thus separating the... Medal of the emperor during his visit to Florence, by Pisanello (1438). ... The Janissaries comprised infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultans household troops and bodyguard. ... The Janissaries comprised infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultans household troops and bodyguard. ... The Janissaries comprised infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultans household troops and bodyguard. ... George Sphrantzes (also Phrantzes or Phrantza) (1401-c. ... Isidore (Russian: Исидор; died 1462) was Metropolitan of Moscow and all Russia. ... Lesbos (Modern Greek: Lesvos (Λέσβος)), is a Greek island located in the northeastern Aegean Sea. ...

Equipment and strategies

Prior to the siege of Constantinople it is known that the Ottomans held the ability to cast medium-sized cannon, yet nothing near the range of some pieces they were able to put to field. Instrumental to this Ottoman advancement in arms production was a somewhat mysterious figure by the name of Orban, a Hungarian. The master founder immediately tried to peddle his skills to the city's invaders. Guaranteeing Mehmed that he could cast cannons powerful enough to break down the greatest fortifications ever constructed, every resource was placed at his fingertips. In a move of unprecedented technicality, working in a makeshift foundry, Orban pushed the limits of his art and cast what was likely the largest contemporary gun ever made—27 feet long and large enough for a full grown man to crawl into. Orban's cannon could fire a 1200 lb (544 kg) ball as far as one mile. It was dubbed "the Great Turkish Bombard". Orban's cannon had several drawbacks, however: it took three hours to reload; the cannon balls were in very short supply; and the cannon is said to have collapsed under its own recoil after six weeks (this fact however is disputed,^[1] being only reported in the letter of archbishop Leonardo di Chio^[20] and the later and often unreliable Russian chronicle of Nestor Iskinder). The creation of such a weapon was such a feat for its time that it took on an air of religious reverence^{[citation needed]}. Orban's accomplishments in dealing with such fine tolerances on such a massive scale place his work as one of the greatest engineering feats of the time yet nothing is certainly known about his demise. ^[23] Having previously established a large foundry approximately 150 miles away, Mehmed now had to undergo the painstaking process of transporting his massive pieces of artillery. Orban's giant cannon was said to have been accompanied by a crew of 90 oxen and over 400 men. Orban, also known as Urban, was a Hungarian engineer. ... The Great Turkish Bombard is a siege gun dating from soon after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. ...

Mehmed II is leading the Ottoman army which began marching from Edirne.

Mehmed planned to attack the Theodosian Walls, the intricate series of walls and ditches protecting Constantinople from an attack from the west, the only part of the city not surrounded by water. His army encamped outside the city on the Monday after Easter, April 2, 1453. Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... Image File history File links Metadata No higher resolution available. ... “Adrianople” redirects here. ... Sections of the Theodosian walls of Constantinople as they appear today in suburban Istanbul The Walls of Constantinople surrounded the Roman and Byzantine city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey). ... is the 92nd day of the year (93rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... April 2 - Mehmed II begins his siege of Constantinople (İstanbul). ...

On April 5, as the sultan himself arrived with his last troops, the defenders took up their positions.^[24] As their numbers were insufficient to occupy the walls in their entirety, it had been decided that only the outer walls would be manned. Constantine and his Greek troops guarded the Mesoteichon, the middle section of the land walls, where they were crossed by the river Lycus. This section was considered the weakest spot in the walls and an attack was feared here most. Guistiniani was stationed to the north of the emperor, at the Charisian Gate and the Myriandrion; later during the siege, he was shifted to the Mesoteichon to join Constantine, leaving the Myriandron to the defense of the Bocchiardi brothers. Minotto and his Venetians were stationed in the Blachernae palace, together with Teodoro Caristo, the Langasco brothers, and archbishop Leonardo di Chio. To the left of the emperor, further south, were the commanders Cataneo, with Genoese troops, and Theophilus Palaeologus, who guarded the Pegae Gate with Greek soldiers. The section of the land walls from the Pegae Gate to the Golden Gate (itself guarded by a certain Genoese called Manuel) was defended by the Venetian Filippo Contarini, while Demetrius Cantacuzenus had taken position on the southernmost part of the Theodosian wall. The sea walls were manned more sparsely, with Jacobo Contarini at Stoudion, a makeshift defense force of Greek monks to his left hand, and prince Orhan at the Harbour of Eleutherius. Péré Julia was stationed at the Great Palace with Genoese troops; cardinal Isidore of Kiev guarded the tip of the peninsula near the boom. The sea walls at the southern shore of the Golden Horn were defended by Venetian and Genoese sailors under Gabriele Trevisano. Two tactical reserves were kept behind in the city, one in the Petra district just behind the land walls and one near the Church of the Holy Apostles, under the command of Lucas Notaras and Nicephorus Palaeologus, respectively. The Genoese Alviso Diedo commanded the ships in the harbour. Although the Byzantines also had cannons, they were much smaller then those of the Ottomans and the recoil tended to damage their own walls.^[20] is the 95th day of the year (96th in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... Blachernae (Greek: ) is a suburb in the northwestern section of Constantinople. ... Byzantine miniature depicting the Stoudios monastery. ... View of Golden Horn from Eyup Sultan Cemetery The Golden Horn (in Turkish Haliç, in Greek Khrysokeras or Chrysoceras or Χρυσοκερας) is an estuary dividing the city of Istanbul. ... The Church of the Holy Apostles (Greek: Aghioi Apostoloi), also known as the Imperial Polyandreion, was a Christian basilica built in Constantinople (then the capital of the Byzantine Empire) in 550 AD. It was second only to the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) among the great churches of... Loukas Notaras (Gr. ... An early naval cannon design, allowing the gun to roll backwards a small distance when firing The recoil when firing a gun is the backward momentum of a gun, which is equal to the forward momentum of the bullet or shell, due to conservation of momentum. ...

The bulk of the Ottoman army were encamped south of the Golden Horn. The regular European troops, stretched out along the entire length of the walls, were commanded by Karadja Pasha. The regular troops from Anatolia under Ishak Pasha were stationed south of the Lycus down to the Sea of Marmora. Mehmed himself erected his red-and-gold tent near the Mesoteichon, where the guns and the elite regiments, the Janissaries, were positioned. The Bashi-bazouks were spread out behind the front lines. Other troops under Zaganos Pasha were employed north of the Golden Horn. Communication was maintained by a road that had been constructed over the marshy head of the Horn.^[25] Anatolia and Europe Anatolia (Turkish: from Greek: Ανατολία - Anatolia) is a peninsula of Western Asia which forms the greater part of the Asian portion of Turkey, as opposed to the European portion (Thrace, or traditionally Rumelia). ... The Janissaries (or janizaries; in Turkish: Yeniçeri, meaning New Troops) comprised infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultans household troops and bodyguard. ... A bashi-bazouk (in Turkish başıbozuk, meaning leaderless) was an irregular mounted mercenary soldier of the Ottoman army. ... ZaÄŸanos Pasha was one of the prominent military commanders of Mehmet II (Mehmet the Conqueror) and a lala, at once an advisor, mentor, tutor, councilors, protector, for the sultan. ...

Siege and final assault of the city

Siege of Constantinople

At the beginning of the siege, Mehmed sent out some of his best troops to reduce the remaining Byzantine strongholds outside the city of Constantinople. The fortress of Therapia on the Bosphorus and a smaller castle at the village of Studius near the Sea of Marmora were taken within a few days. The Princes' Islands in the Sea of Marmora were taken by admiral Baltoghlu's fleet.^[26] Image File history File links Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691. ... Image File history File links Siege_constantinople_bnf_fr2691. ... The Princes Islands (today Adalar) are a chain of nine islands off the coast of Istanbul, Turkey, in the Sea of Marmara. ...

Mehmed's massive cannon fired on the walls for weeks, but due to its imprecision and extremely slow rate of reloading the Byzantines were able to repair most of the damage after each shot, limiting the cannon's effect.

Meanwhile, despite some probing attacks, the Ottoman fleet under Baltoghlu could not enter the Golden Horn due to the boom the Byzantines had laid across the entrance, and although one of its main tasks was to prevent any ships from outside from entering the Golden Horn, on 20 April a small flotilla of four Christian ships^[27] managed to slip in after some heavy fighting, an event which strengthened the morale of the defenders and caused embarrassment to the Sultan. To circumvent the boom, Mehmed ordered the construction of a road of greased logs across Galata on the north side of the Golden Horn, and rolled his ships across on 22 April. This seriously threatened the flow of supplies from Genovese ships from the - nominally neutral - colony of Pera and demoralized the Byzantine defenders. On the night of 28 April, an attempt was made to destroy the Ottoman ships already in the Golden Horn using fire ships, but the Ottomans had been warned in advance and forced the Christians to retreat with heavy losses. From then on, the defenders were forced to disperse part of their forces to the Golden Horn walls, causing defense in other sections of the walls to weaken. View of Golden Horn from Eyup Sultan Cemetery The Golden Horn (in Turkish Haliç, in Greek Khrysokeras or Chrysoceras or Χρυσοκερας) is an estuary dividing the city of Istanbul. ... Galata or Galatae is a district in Istanbul, the largest city of Turkey. ... For other uses, see Genoa (disambiguation). ... İstiklâl Avenue and the tram line running between Taksim Square and Tünel Beyoğlu is a district located on the European side of İstanbul, Turkey, separated from the old city (historic peninsula of Constantinople) by the Golden Horn. ... This article is not about the fireboats that fight fire Defeat of the Spanish Armada, 1588-08-08 by Philippe-Jacques de Loutherbourg, painted 1796, depicts Drakes fire ship attack on the Spanish Armada. ...

The Turks had made several frontal assaults on the land wall, but were always repelled with heavy losses. From mid-May to 25 May, the Ottomans sought to break through the walls by constructing underground tunnels in an effort to sap them. Many of the sappers were Serbians sent from Novo Brdo by the Serbian Despot. They were placed under the rule of Zaganos Pasha. However, the Byzantines employed an engineer named Johannes Grant (who was said to be German but was probably Scottish), who had countertunnels dug, allowing Byzantine troops to enter the tunnels and kill the Turkish workers. The Byzantines intercepted the first Serbian tunnel on the night of 16 May. Subsequent tunneling efforts were interrupted on 21, 23, and 25 May, destroying them with Greek fire and vigorous combat. On 23 May, the Byzantines captured and tortured two Turkish officers, who revealed the location of all the Turkish tunnels, which were then destroyed.^[28] It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Undermining. ... Not to be confused with Republika Srpska. ... Novo Brdo/Ново Брдо (Serbian) or Novobërda/Novobërdë (Albanian) is a town and municipality in Kosovo (under UN administration, formally part of Serbia). ... Not to be confused with Republika Srpska. ... Despotism is government by a singular authority, either a single person or tightly knit group, which rules with absolute power. ... Zağanos Pasha was one of the prominent military commanders of Mehmet II (Mehmet the Conqueror) and a lala, at once an advisor, mentor, tutor, councilors, protector, for the sultan. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

Mehmed II tries to save his fleet during the siege of Constantinople

Mehmed offered to lift the siege if they gave him the city. When this was declined, Mehmed planned to overpower the walls by sheer force, knowing that the weak Byzantine defenders would be worn out before he ran out of troops. Around this time, Mehmed had a final council with his senior officers. Here he encountered some resistance; one of his Viziers, the veteran Halil Pasha, who had always disapproved of Mehmed's plans to conquer the city, now admonished him to abandon the siege in the face of recent adversity. Halil was overruled by Zaganos Pasha, who insisted on an immediate attack, an advice which the Sultan was glad to follow. Suspected of having been bribed by the Byzantines, Halil Pasha was put to death later that year.^[29] Image File history File links 1453_conquest2. ... Image File history File links 1453_conquest2. ... Mehmed II (Ottoman Turkish: محمد ثانى , Turkish: ), (also known as el-Fatih (الفاتح), the Conqueror, in Ottoman Turkish, or, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet) (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481. ... Castle built by Çandarlı Halil Pasha in the Aegean coast town that bears his name -Çandarlı, former Pitane- to protect the Sultan Murat II who resided in nearby Manisa from a possible outside attack. ...

On May 22, 1453, the moon, symbol of Constantinople, rose in dark eclipse, fulfilling a prophecy on the city's demise. Four days later, the whole city was blotted out by a thick fog, a condition unknown in that part of the world in May. When the fog lifted that evening, a strange light was seen playing about the dome of the Hagia Sophia, and from the city walls lights were seen in the countryside to the west, far behind the Turkish camp. The light around the dome was interpreted by some as the Holy Spirit departing from the Cathedral, while there was a distant hope that the lights were the campfires of the troops of John Hunyadi who had come to relieve the city.^[30] is the 142nd day of the year (143rd in leap years) in the Gregorian calendar. ... This article is about astronomical eclipses. ... Hagia Sophia The patriarchal basilica Hagia Sophia (Greek: ; Holy Wisdom), now known as the Ayasofya Museum, was the culmination of early Christian architecture. ... Topics in Christianity Movements · Denominations Ecumenism · Preaching · Prayer Music · Liturgy · Calendar Symbols · Art · Criticism Important figures Apostle Paul · Church Fathers Constantine · Athanasius · Augustine Anselm · Aquinas · Palamas · Luther Calvin · Wesley Arius · Marcion of Sinope Archbishop of Canterbury · Catholic Pope Coptic Pope · Ecumenical Patriarch Christianity Portal This box:      In mainstream Christianity, the... John Hunyadi, as imagined by a 17th century artist John Hunyadi (Medieval Latin: Ioannes Corvinus, German: Johann Hunyadi; Hungarian: Hunyadi János, Romanian: Iancu or Ioan de Hunedoara) (c. ...

Final assault

On May 28, as the Ottoman army prepared for the final assault, large-scale religious processions were held in the city. In the evening a last solemn ceremony was held in the Hagia Sophia, in which the Emperor and representatives of both the Latin and Greek church partook, together with nobility from both sides.^[31] Shortly after midnight the attack began. The first wave of attackers, the azabs (auxiliaries), were poorly trained and equipped, and were meant only to kill as many defenders as possible. The second assault, consisting largely of Anatolians, focused on a section of the Blachernae walls in the northwest part of the city, which had been partially damaged by the cannon. This section of the walls had been built much more recently, in the eleventh century, and was much weaker; the crusaders in 1204 had broken through the walls there. The Ottoman attackers also managed to break through, but were just as quickly pushed back out by the defenders. The Christians also managed for a time to hold off the third attack by the Sultan's elite Janissaries, but the Genoese general in charge of the land troops,^[1][20][19] Giovanni Giustiniani, was grievously wounded during the attack, and his evacuation from the ramparts caused a panic in the ranks of the defenders.^[32] Giustiniani was carried to Chios, where he succumbed to his wounds a few days later. The military of Ottoman Empire was structured in three organizational structures Army, Navy, and Air Force. ... Anatolia and Europe Anatolia (Turkish: from Greek: Ανατολία - Anatolia) is a peninsula of Western Asia which forms the greater part of the Asian portion of Turkey, as opposed to the European portion (Thrace, or traditionally Rumelia). ... Blachernae (Greek: ) is a suburb in the northwestern section of Constantinople. ... The Janissaries comprised infantry units that formed the Ottoman sultans household troops and bodyguard. ... Giovanni Giustiniani was a Genoese captain during the Middle Ages. ... Chios (Greek: , alternative transliterations Khios and Hios, see also List of traditional Greek place names; Ottoman Turkish: صاقيز Sakız; Genoese: Scio) is a Greek island in the Aegean Sea five miles off the Turkish coasts. ...

With Giustiniani's Genoese troops retreating into the city and towards the harbour, Constantine and his men, now left to their own devices, kept fighting and managed to hold off the attackers for a while. At this point, some historians suggest that the Kerkoporta gate in the Blachernae section had been left unlocked, and the Ottomans soon discovered this mistake.^[33] The Ottomans rushed in. Around the same time, the defenders were being overwhelmed at several points in Constantine's section. When Turkish flags were seen flying above the Kerkoporta, a panic ensued and the defense collapsed. It is said that Constantine, throwing aside his purple regalia, led the final charge against the oncoming Ottomans, dying in the ensuing battle in the streets like his soldiers, although his ultimate fate remains unknown.^[34] This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ... Blachernae (Greek: ) is a suburb in the northwestern section of Constantinople. ...

Consequence

Mehmet II enters the fallen city by Fausto Zonaro

After the initial assault, the Ottoman army fanned out along the main thoroughfare of the city, the Mese, past the great forums, and past the Church of the Holy Apostles, which Mehmet II wanted to provide a seat for his newly appointed patriarch which would help him better control his Christian subjects. Mehmet II had sent an advance guard to protect key buildings such as the Holy Apostles, as he did not wish to establish his new capital in a thoroughly devastated city. Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 472 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (536 × 681 pixel, file size: 301 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... Image File history File links Metadata Size of this preview: 472 × 600 pixelsFull resolution (536 × 681 pixel, file size: 301 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) File historyClick on a date/time to view the file as it appeared at that time. ... The Church of the Holy Apostles (Greek: Aghioi Apostoloi), also known as the Imperial Polyandreion, was a Christian basilica built in Constantinople (then the capital of the Byzantine Empire) in 550 AD. It was second only to the Church of the Holy Wisdom (Hagia Sophia) among the great churches of...

The Army converged upon the Augusteum, the vast square that fronted the great church of Hagia Sophia whose bronze gates were barred by a huge throng of civilians inside the building, hoping for divine protection at this late hour. After the doors were breached, the troops separated the congregation according to what price they might bring on the slave markets. A few of the elderly and some infants were summarily slain with a commercial ruthlessness. Soldiers fought over the possession of richly clad senators or for the comely youth or maiden.

There are many legends in Greece surrounding the Fall of Constantinople. One of them holds that two priests saying divine liturgy over the crowd disappeared into the cathedral's walls as the first Turkish soldiers entered. According to the legend, the priests will appear again on the day Constantinople returns to Christian hands.^[35] Another legend refers to the Marble King, Constantine XI, holding that, when the Ottomans entered the city, an angel rescued the emperor, turned him into marble and placed him in a cave under the earth near the Golden Gate, where he waits to be brought to life again (a variant of the sleeping hero legend).^[36].^[37] The Divine Liturgy is the common term for the Eucharistic service of the Byzantine tradition of Christian liturgy. ... A king in the mountain, also known as a sleeping hero, is a repeated motif that appears in a number of folktales. ...

Constantine XI: The last Byzantine emperor

Byzantine historian George Sphrantzes was in the city, and witnessed to the fall of Constantinople. He later recalled in his chronicle about the fall of the city, what happened at the end of the third day of the conquest: Image File history File links Constantine_XI.jpg Constantine XI Paleologus. ... Image File history File links Constantine_XI.jpg Constantine XI Paleologus. ... Constantine XI: The last Byzantine emperor is considered a saint by the Eastern Orthodox Church. ... George Sphrantzes (also Phrantzes or Phrantza) (1401-c. ...

On the third day after the fall of our city, the sultan celebrated his victory with a great, joyful triumph. He issued a proclamation: the citizens of all ages who had managed to escape detection were to leave their hiding places throughout the city and come out into the open, as they were remain free and no question would be asked. He further declared the restoration of houses and property to those who had abandoned our city before the siege, if they returned home, they would be treated according to their rank and religion, as if nothing had changed.^[38]

Far from being in its heyday, Constantinople was severely depopulated for years following the depredations from the bubonic plague and especially from the disaster of the Fourth Crusade inflicted on it by the Christian army two centuries before. Therefore, the city in 1453 was a series of walled villages separated by vast fields encircled in whole by the fourth century Theodosian walls. When the Ottoman troops first broke through the defenses, many of the leading citizens of these little townlets submitted their surrender to Mehmet's generals.^[7] These villages, specifically along the land walls, were allowed to keep their citizens and churches and were protected by Mehmet's special contingents of Janissaries. It was these people who formed what the Ottomans called a Millet, or self governing community in the multi-national empire of what would become Ottoman Istanbul. This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ...

In Mehmed's view, he was the successor to the Roman Emperor. He named himself "Kayzer-i Rum", the Roman Caesar, but he was nicknamed "the Conqueror". Constantinople became the new capital of the Ottoman Empire. Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque, although the Greek Orthodox Church remained intact, and Gennadius Scholarius was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople. Caesar (plural Caesars), Latin: Cæsar (plural Cæsares), is a title of imperial character. ... Hagia Sophia The patriarchal basilica Hagia Sophia (Greek: ; Holy Wisdom), now known as the Ayasofya Museum, was the culmination of early Christian architecture. ... The Orthodox Church of Constantinople is one of the fifteen autocephalous Eastern Orthodox churches. ... Gennadius II (lay name Georgios Scholarios) (died circa 1473), patriarch of Constantinople from 1454 to 1464, philosopher and theologian, was one of the last representatives of Byzantine learning, and a strong advocate of Aristotelian philosophy in the Church. ... The Patriarch of Constantinople is the Ecumenical Patriarch, ranking as the first among equals in the Eastern Orthodox communion. ...

The "Church of the Holy Wisdom", or Hagia Sofia, was converted into a mosque

Many Greeks fled the city and found refuge in the Latin West, bringing with them knowledge and documents from the Greco-Roman tradition that further propelled the Renaissance, although the influx of Greek scholars into the West began much earlier, especially in the Northern Italian city-states which had started welcoming scholars in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The chancellor of Florence Coluccio Salutati began this cultural exchange in 1396 by inviting a Byzantine Scholar to lecture at the University of Florence. It was the Italians' hunger for Latin Classics and a command of the Greek Language that fueled the Renaissance. Those Greeks who stayed behind in Constantinople were mostly confined to the Phanar and Galata districts. The Phanariots, as they were called, provided many capable advisers to the Ottoman sultans, but were seen as traitors by many Greeks. Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (3996x1912, 1770 KB) Description: Längsschnitt der Hagia Sophia. ... Image File history File links Download high-resolution version (3996x1912, 1770 KB) Description: Längsschnitt der Hagia Sophia. ... Holy Wisdom, also called Divine Wisdom (Greek: “Holy Wisdom”, Sancta Sophia in Latin) is the theological idea that in God alone is perfect Wisdom to be found. ... Hagia Sofia, Istanbul, Turkey, June 1994 The Church of the Holy Wisdom, variously known as Hagia Sophia (Άγια Σοφία) in Greek, Sancta Sophia in Latin or Ayasofya in Turkish, is a former Christian church, now a museum, in Istanbul, formerly Constantinople. ... The Masjid al-Haram in Mecca as it exists today A mosque is a place of worship for followers of the Islamic faith. ... For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation). ... This article or section does not cite any references or sources. ... Coluccio Salutati (1331-1406) was one of the most important political and cultural leaders of Renaissance Florence. ... The University of Florence (Università degli Studi di Firenze, UNIFI) is one of the largest and oldest universities in Italy. ... Fanar (formerly Phanar) is a neighborhood in Istanbul, Turkey (formerly Constantinople). ... Galata or Galatae is a district in Istanbul, the largest city of Turkey. ... Phanariotes (from Phanar, the chief Greek quarter at Istambul, where the oecumenical patriarchate is situated) were those members of families resident in the Phanar quarter who between the years 1711 and 1821 were appointed voivodes of the Danubian principalities (Moldavia and Wallachia). ...

The Morean (Peloponnesian) fortress of Mystras, where Constantine's brothers Thomas and Demetrius ruled, constantly in conflict with each other and knowing that Mehmed would eventually invade them as well, held out until 1460. Long before the fall of Constantinople, Demetrius had fought for the throne with Thomas, Constantine, and their other brothers John and Theodore.^[39] Thomas escaped to Rome when the Ottomans invaded Morea while Demetrius expected to rule a puppet state, but instead was imprisoned and remained there for the rest of his life. In Rome, Thomas and his family received some monetary support from the Pope and other western rulers as Byzantine emperor in exile, until 1503. In 1461 the independent Byzantine state in Trebizond fell to Mehmed.^[40] The Morea and surrounding states carved from the Byzantine Empire, as they were in 1265 (William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 1911) The name Morea (Μωρέας) for Peloponnesos first appears in the 10th century in Byzantine chronicles. ... After the fall of Constantinople to Mehmed II, the only free province of the Byzantine Empire was the Despotate of Morea, ruled by two brothers of the dead emperor Constantine XI Palaeologus, Thomas and Demetrius Palaeologus. ... Medal of the emperor during his visit to Florence, by Pisanello (1438). ... The Empire of Trebizond and other states carved from the Byzantine Empire, as they were in 1265 (William R. Shepherd, Historical Atlas, 1911) The Empire of Trebizond (Greek: Βασίλειον τῆς Τραπεζούντας) was a Byzantine Greek successor state of the Byzantine Empire founded in 1204 as a result of the capture of Constantinople by...

Scholars consider the Fall of Constantinople as a key event ending the Middle Ages and starting the Renaissance because of the end of the old religious order in Europe and the use of cannon and gunpowder. The fall of Constantinople and general encroachment of the Turks in that region also severed the main overland trade link between Europe and Asia, and as a result more Europeans began to seriously consider the possibility of reaching Asia by sea.^[41] The Middle Ages formed the middle period in a traditional schematic division of European history into three ages: the classical civilization of Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and modern times, beginning with the Renaissance. ... This article is about the European Renaissance of the 14th-17th centuries. ... For additional context, see History of Portugal and Portuguese Empire. ...

See also

Military history of the Ottoman Empire Portal

• Byzantine-Ottoman wars
• Great Turkish Bombard
• Greek fire
• Byzantine navy
• Walls of Constantinople
• Loukas Notaras
• Sophia Paleologue
• Critoboulos of Imbros
• Laonicus Chalcondyles
• George Sphrantzes
• Istanbul (etymology)
• Mehmet II
• Kuwae

Image File history File linksMetadata Size of this preview: 502 × 599 pixel Image in higher resolution (858 × 1024 pixel, file size: 503 KB, MIME type: image/jpeg) Artillery troop image on the Ottoman coat of arms From: http://www. ... Combatants Byzantine Empire Ottoman Turks The Byzantine Ottoman wars was a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Turks and the Byzantines that led to the final destruction of the Byzantine empire and the rise of the Ottoman empire. ... The Great Turkish Bombard is a siege gun dating from soon after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. ... Greek fire was a burning-liquid weapon used by the Byzantine Greeks, typically in naval battles to great effect as it could continue burning even on water. ... The Byzantine Dromon, the heaviest ship in the Byzantine fleet, capable of carrying up to 300 men; 230 oarsmen and 70 marines. ... Map showing Constantinople and its walls during the Byzantine era The Walls of Constantinople are a series of stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city of Constantinople (today Istanbul in Turkey) since its founding as the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire by Constantine the Great. ... Loukas Notaras (Greek Λουκάς Νοταράς) (?-3 or 4 June 1453) was the last Megas Doux of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire. ... Zoe Palaiologina (Greek Ζωή Παλαιολόγου, Russian Софья Фоминична Палеолог, around 1455 - April 7, 1503), Grand Duchess of Moscow, was a niece of the last Byzantine emperor Constantine XI and second wife of Ivan III of Russia. ... Critoboulos of Imbros (c. ... Laonicus Chalcondyles (or Chalcocondylas) was the only Athenian Byzantine writer. ... George Phrantza or Georgios Phrantzes (1401-c. ... It has been suggested that Tsargrad be merged into this article or section. ... Mehmed II Mehmed II (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481; nicknamed el-Fatih, the Conqueror) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire for a short time from 1444 to 1446, and later from 1451 to 1481. ...

Notes

The Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana, the Library of St Marks, patron of Venice, is one of the primary manuscript depositories of Italy. ... Johannes Bessarion, or Basilius (c. ... Nicholas V, né Tomaso Parentucelli (November 15, 1397 – March 24, 1455) was Pope from March 6, 1447, to his death. ... Ottoman redirects here. ... Ciriaco Pizzecolli, also known as Cyriac of Ancona (c. ... Ancona is a city and a seaport in the Marche, a region of central Italy, population 101,909 (2005). ... The Republic of Genoa, in full the Most Serene Republic of Genoa (known as the Ligurian Republic from 1798 to 1805) was an independent state in Liguria on the northwestern Italian coast from ca. ...

References

• Runciman, Steven (1965). The Fall of Constantinople: 1453. London: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-39832-0. 
• Norwich, John Julius (1995). Byzantium: The Decline and Fall. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-679-41650-1. 
• Pertusi, Agostino, ed. (1976). La Caduta di Costantinopoli, I: Le testimonianze dei contemporanei. Verona: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla. 
• Pertusi, Agostino, ed. (1976). La Caduta di Costantinopoli, II: L’eco nel mondo. Verona: Fondazione Lorenzo Valla. 
• The Siege of Constantinople (1453), according to the eyewitness Nicolo Barbaro
• Franz Babinger: Mehmed the Conqueror and His Time Princeton University Press. 1992. ISBN 0-691-01078-1
• Andrew Wheatcroft: The Infidels: The Conflict Between Christendom and Islam, 638–2002 Viking Publishing. 2003 ISBN 0-670-86942-2
• Richard Fletcher: The Cross and the Crescent Penguin Group. 2005 ISBN 0-14-303481-2
• Justin Wintle: The Rough Guide History of Islam Rough Guides. 2003 ISBN 1-84353-018-X
• Smith, Michael Llewellyn, "The Fall of Constantinople", in History Makers magazine No. 5 (London, Marshall Cavendish, Sidgwick & Jackson, 1969) p. 192.
• The Cross and the Crescent Exhibit: Royal Academy of Arts Magazine Spring 2005

Sir James Cochran Stevenson Runciman (7 July 1903 - 1 November 2000) was a British historian known for his work on the Middle Ages. ... John Julius Cooper, 2nd Viscount Norwich CVO (born 15 September 1929) is an English historian, travel writer and television personality known as John Julius Norwich. ... Franz Babinger 1891-1967 was a pioneering historian of the Ottoman Empire, best known for his authoritative biography of the great Ottoman emperor Mehmed II known as the Conqueror, originally published as Mehmed der Eroberer und seine Zeit. ... Richard Fletcher (1768-1813) was an engineer in the British Army. ... Justin Wintle (born 1949) is an English author, editor and journalist who has contributed to a wide variety of media-outlets. ...

External links

• The Trouble with Turkey: The Fall of Constantinople The Economist 1999. http://www.economist.com/diversions/millennium/displayStory.cfm?Story_ID=346800

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History of Turkey

Pre-Ottoman Turkey (1000 – 13th century)
	Seljuk Turks (1000–1300)	Sultanate of Rum (1060–1327)	Anatolian beyliks (13th century)
Ottoman Empire (1299–1923)
Rise (1299–1453)	Growth (1453–1683)	Stagnation (1683–1827)	Decline (1828–1908)	Dissolution (1908–1922)
Capitulations	Tulip Era	Tanzimat era	First Constitutional Era	Second Constitutional Era
	Fall of Constantinople	European Wars	Russian Wars
Republic of Turkey (1919 – Present)
	War of Independence (1919–1923)	Single-Party Period (1923–1945)	Multi-Party Period (1945 – Present)

Turkey is a successor state of the Ottoman Empire, a multi-ethnic empire consolidated by gradual conquest during medieval and early modern times (1300-1700). ... The Seljuk coat of arms was a double headed eagle The Seljuk Turks (also Seldjuk, Seldjuq, Seljuq; in modern Turkish Selçuklular; in Persian سلجوقيان SaljÅ«qiyān; in Arabic سلجوق SaljÅ«q, or السلاجقة al-Salājiqa) were a major branch of the Oghuz Turks and a dynasty that ruled parts of... Sultanate controlling virtually all of Anatolia Capital Ä°znik Konya Political structure Empire Sultans  - 1060-1077 Kutalmish  - 1303-1308 Mesud II History  - Division from the Great Seljuk Empire 1077  - Internal struggles 1307 The Seljuk Sultanate of Rum was the Seljuk Turkish sultanate that ruled in direct lineage from 1077 to 1307... Anatolian beyliks (also Turkmen beyliks, Tevâif-i mülûk (in Ottoman Turkish) were small Turkish emirates or muslim principalities (beylik) governed by tribal beys, which were founded in several locations of Anatolia as of the end of the 13th century. ... (12th century - 13th century - 14th century - other centuries) As a means of recording the passage of time, the 13th century was that century which lasted from 1201 to 1300. ... Image File history File links OttomanCoatOfArms. ... Ottoman redirects here. ... In the late 13th century the Seljuq empire had collapsed and Anatolia was divided into many small states. ... This article is in need of attention. ... The Battle of Vienna of 1683 was the real point at which the Empire began its decline. ... Graphical timeline Decline of the Ottoman Empire covers the military and political events between 1828 to 1908. ... This article describes the process of dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, in particular its final years in the early part of the 20th century. ... Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire are contracts between Ottoman Empire and European powers. ... The Tulip Era is an important period for the Ottoman Empire. ... The Tanzimat (Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات), meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 and ended with the First Constitutional Era in 1876. ... Graphical timeline The First Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire was the period of constitutional monarchy from the promulgation of a Basic Law by Abdülhamid II on 23 November 1876 until 13 February 1878 when the constitution was suspended. ... Public Demonstration The Second Constitutional Era in the Ottoman Empire began with the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, shortly after which Sultan Abdul Hamid II restored the 1876 Constitution suspended since 1878. ... The wars of the Ottoman Empire in Europe marked the better part of the history of southeastern Europe, notably, giving infamy to the Balkans. ... The Russo-Turkish Wars were a series of ten wars fought between the Russian Empire and the Turkish-ruled Ottoman Empire during the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries. ... Image File history File links Flag_of_Turkey. ... Combatants   Turkish Revolutionaries United Kingdom Greece France Italy Armenia Ottoman Empire Georgia Commanders Mustafa Kemal Ä°smet Ä°nönü Kazım Karabekir Ali Fuat Cebesoy Fevzi Çakmak George Milne Henri Gouraud Papoulas Georgios Hatzianestis Drastamat Kanayan Movses Silikyan Süleyman Åžefik Pasha The Turkish War of Independence (Turkish: KurtuluÅŸ Savaşı or... Atatürk, modern Turkeys founder and first President The history of modern Turkey begins with the foundation of the republic on October 29, 1923 (the Republic was declared on January 20, 1921), with Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) as its first president. ... This page summarizes the history after the Multi-party period. ...