The term fetal rights can refer either to legal rights accorded to fetuses or to the moral rights that some people ascribe to them.

Fetal protection in law

United States President George W. Bush signs the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004

Some laws seek to protect or otherwise recognize the fetus. Some of these grant recognition under specific conditions: the fetus can legally be a victim of a crime, a beneficiary of insurance or social assistance, or an inheritor of property. Original caption: President George W. Bush signs H.R. 1997, the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004, in the East Room Thursday, April 1, 2004. ... Original caption: President George W. Bush signs H.R. 1997, the Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004, in the East Room Thursday, April 1, 2004. ... For the pop band, see Presidents of the United States of America. ... George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American businessman and politician, was elected in 2000 as the 43rd President of the United States of America, re-elected in 2004, and is currently serving his second term in that office. ... Signing ceremony at the White House, April 1, 2004. ... A beneficiary in the broadest sense is a natural person or other legal entity who receives money or other benefits from a benefactor. ... The examples and perspective in this article or section may not represent a worldwide view. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Inheritance is the practice of passing on property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the death of an individual. ... // Use of the term In common usage, property means ones own thing and refers to the relationship between individuals and the objects which they see as being their own to dispense with as they see fit. ...

• The Unborn Victims of Violence Act is a United States law which defines violent assault committed against pregnant women as being a crime against two persons: the woman and the fetus she carries. ^[1] This law was passed in 2004 after the murder of the then pregnant Laci Peterson and her fetus, Connor Peterson.

• In 2002, U.S. President George W. Bush announced a plan to ensure health care coverage for fetuses under the State Children's Health Insurance Program (CHIP). ^[2]

• Iranian law holds that anyone who brings about a miscarriage must pay a monetary fine, which varies depending upon the stage of development and/or sex of the fetus, in compensation. ^[3]

Signing ceremony at the White House, April 1, 2004. ... The stela of King Hammurabi depicts the god Shamash revealing a code of laws to the king. ... Laci Peterson Laci Peterson, born Laci Denise Rocha (May 4, 1975 – December, 2002), was last seen alive on December 23, 2002 and became the subject of one of the most discussed missing person cases in recent U.S. history. ... The presidential seal was used by President Hayes in 1880 and last modified in 1959 by adding the 50th star for Hawaii. ... George Walker Bush (born July 6, 1946) is an American businessman and politician, was elected in 2000 as the 43rd President of the United States of America, re-elected in 2004, and is currently serving his second term in that office. ... Health care or healthcare is the prevention, treatment, and management of illness and the preservation of mental and physical well-being through the services offered by the medical, nursing, and allied health professions [1]. The organised provision of such services may constitute a healthcare system. ... The State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP) is a national program in the United States designed for families who earn too much money to qualify for Medicaid, yet cannot afford to buy private insurance. ... A fine is money paid as a financial punishment for the commission of minor crimes or as the settlement of a claim. ...

Right-to-life and legal personhood

Legislative measures sometimes seek to establish the right to life of the fetus from the moment of fertilisation. Such laws regard the fetus as a person whose legal status is on par with that of any other members of the species homo sapiens: The term right to life is a political term used in controversies over various issues that involve the taking of a life (or what is perceived to be a life). ... A spermatozoon fertilising an ovum Fertilisation, also spelled fertilization (also known as conception, fecundation and syngamy), is fusion of gametes to form a new organism of the same species. ... A person is defined by philosophers as a being who is in possession of a range of psychological capacities that are regarded as both necessary and sufficient to fulfill the requirements of personhood. ... In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biodiversity. ... Trinomial name Homo sapiens sapiens Linnaeus, 1758 Humans, or human beings, are bipedal primates belonging to the mammalian species Homo sapiens (Latin for wise man or knowing man) under the family Hominidae (known as the great apes). ...

• The 1978 American Convention on Human Rights states, in Article 4.1, "Every person has the right to have his life respected. This right shall be protected by law and, in general, from the moment of conception." The Convention is considered binding only for the 24 of 35 member nations of the Organization of American States who ratified it.

• In 1983, the Eighth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, also known as the "Pro-Life Amendment," was added to the Constitution of The Republic of Ireland by popular referendum. It recognizes "the right to life of the unborn".

• In 1993, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany held that the constitution guaranteed the right to life from conception, but that it is within the discretion of parliament not to punish abortion in the first trimester, providing that women agreed to undergo special counselling designed to discourage termination and "protect unborn life". The intermediate decision was the result of an attempt to join East Germany's abortion law to that of West Germany after reunification in 1990.

Other governments have laws in place that state that fetuses are not legally recognized persons: 1978 (MCMLXXVIII) was a common year starting on Sunday. ... American Convention on Human Rights Opened for signature 1969 at San José, Costa Rica Entered into force 18 July 1978 Conditions for entry into force 11 ratifications Parties 24 The American Convention on Human Rights (also known as the Pact of San José) is an International human rights instrument. ... The term conception can refer to more than one meaning: Concept Fertilisation This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... The Organization of American States (OAS; OEA in the other three official languages) is an international organization, headquartered in Washington, D.C., USA. Its members are the 35 independent nations of the Americas. ... Ratification is the process of adopting an international treaty, or a constitution or other nationally binding document (such as an amendment to a constitution) by the agreement of multiple subnational entities. ... The Eighth Amendment of the Constitution of Ireland, the founding legal document of the Republic of Ireland, introduced the controversial constitutional ban on abortion. ... Ireland - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia /**/ @import /skins-1. ... A referendum (plural: referendums or referenda) or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita, a decree of the Concilium Plebis) is a direct vote in which an entire electorate is asked to either accept or reject a particular proposal. ... The Federal Constitutional Court (in German: Bundesverfassungsgericht) is a special court established by the German constitution, the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). ... The human gestation period of approximately 40 weeks between the time of the last menstrual cycle and delivery is traditionally divided into three periods of three months, or trimesters. ... Informed consent is a legal condition whereby a person can be said to have given consent based upon an appreciation and understanding of the facts and implications of an action. ... GDR redirects here. ... The history of abortion in Germany is rather complicated. ... The Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) and the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung) took place on October 3, 1990, when the areas of the former German Democratic Republic (GDR, in English commonly called East Germany) were incorporated into the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, in...

• In Canadian law, under section 223 of the Canadian Criminal Code, a fetus is a "human being ... when it has completely proceeded, in a living state, from the body of its mother whether or not it has completely breathed, it has an independent circulation or the navel string is severed."

Much opposition to legal abortion in the West is based on a concern for fetal rights. Similarly many pro-choice groups oppose fetal rights, even when they do not impinge directly on the abortion issue, because of a perception of these moves as a slippery slope strategy to restricting abortion choice. ^[4] The Canadian Criminal Code (formal title An Act respecting the Criminal Law) is the codification of most of the criminal offences and procedure in Canada. ... Pro-life is a term representing a variety of perspectives and activist movements in bioethics. ... It has been suggested that Anti-abortion movement be merged into this article or section. ... In debate or rhetoric, the slippery slope is an argument for the likelihood of one event given another. ...

Behavioral intervention

Various initiatives, prompted by concern for the ill effects which might be posed to the health or development of a fetus, seek to restrict or discourage women from engaging in certain behaviors while pregnant. Also, in some countries, laws have been passed to restrict the practice of abortion based upon the gender of the fetus. Fetal (U.S. English; Foetal UK English) development is the process in which a fetus (U.S. English; Foetus UK English) develops during gestation, from the times of conception until birth. ...

• Many jurisdictions actively warn against the consumption of alcoholic beverages by pregnant women, recommending a maximum intake or total abstinence, due to its association with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Countries that encourage those who are pregnant to avoid alcohol either entirely or partially include Australia, Canada, France, Iceland, Israel, the Netherlands, Norway, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States.

• Many national and international agencies recommend dietary guidelines for pregnant women due to the health risks posed by the consumption of fish contaminated with methylmercury through industrial pollution. Studies have linked exposure to various levels of methylmercury in utero to neurological disorders in children.

• The use of tobacco products or exposure to secondhand smoke during pregnancy has been linked to low birth weight. ^[5] Governor Mike Huckabee of Arkansas, citing studies which attribute 10% of infant deaths to tobacco-smoking mothers, considered adopting a smoking ban for pregnant women in 2006 with the aim of reducing infant mortality. ^[6]

• No U.S. state has enacted a law which criminalizes specific behavior during pregnancy, but, nonetheless, it has been estimated that at least 200 American women have been criminally prosecuted or arrested under existing child abuse statutes for allegedly bringing about harm in-utero through their conduct during pregnancy. ^[7] Reasons for pressing charges included use of illicit drugs, consumption of alcohol, and failure to comply with a doctor's order of bedrest or caesarean section. ^[7] Drug addicts have been accused of "supplying drugs to a minor" through unintentional chemical subjection via the umbilical cord. ^[7] Others have been charged with assault with a deadly weapon with the "deadly weapon" in question being an illegal drug.^[7] Minnesota, Wisconsin and South Dakota allow women who continue to use substances while pregnant to be civilly committed. ^[7] Some states require that medical providers report any infant who is born with a physical dependency, or who tests positive for residual traces of alcohol or drugs, to child welfare authorities.

• Cultural preferences for male children in some parts of Asia, such as Mainland China, India, South Korea, and Taiwan, have sometimes lead to the deliberate termination of female fetuses through sex-selective abortion. This phenomenon might be partially responsible for the disparity between male-to-female birth rates which is observed in some places. India banned the practice of abortion for reasons of fetal sex in 2002 and China in 2003.

Bottles of cachaça, a Brazilian alcoholic beverage. ... This article summarizes the recommended maximum intake of alcohol as recommended by the health agencies of various governments. ... Teetotalism is the practice and promotion of complete (or T-total) abstinence from alcoholic beverages. ... This baby has FAS. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) describes a spectrum of permanent and often devastating birth-defect syndromes caused by maternal consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. ... In chemistry, an alcohol is any organic compound in which a hydroxyl group (-OH) is bound to a carbon atom of an alkyl or substituted alkyl group. ... Dietary Reference Intake is a set of guidelines set up in 1997 to give more detailed guidance than the RDA system which preceded it. ... The Guppy (Poecilia reticulata) is one of the most popular freshwater aquarium fish species in the world. ... Methylmercury (sometimes methyl mercury), an organometallic positive ion (cation), is a widespread bioaccumulative environmental toxin. ... Water pollution Pollution is the release of chemicals, physical, biological or radioactive contaminants to the environment. ... Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the nervous system. ... on tobacco usage see Tobacco smoking Species Nicotiana acuminata Nicotiana alata Nicotiana attenuata Nicotiana benthamiana Nicotiana clevelandii Nicotiana excelsior Nicotiana forgetiana Nicotiana glauca Nicotiana glutinosa Nicotiana langsdorffii Nicotiana longiflora Nicotiana obtusifolia Nicotiana paniculata Nicotiana plumbagifolia Nicotiana quadrivalvis Nicotiana repanda Nicotiana rustica Nicotianasuaveolens Nicotiana sylvestris Nicotiana tabacum Nicotiana tomentosa Ref: ITIS... Tobacco smoking is the act of smoking tobacco products, especially cigarettes and cigars. ... Birth weight is the weight of a baby at its birth. ... Are you kidding?, this is solid truth here, nothing escapes the eyes of Gov!!!, not even. ... Michael Dale Huckabee (born August 24, 1955, in Hope, Arkansas) has been the governor of the U.S. state of Arkansas since 1996. ... Official language(s) English Capital Little Rock Largest city Little Rock Area  Ranked 29th  - Total 53,179 sq mi (137,732 km²)  - Width 239 miles (385 km)  - Length 261 miles (420 km)  - % water 2. ... The cigarette is the most common method of smoking tobacco. ... Smoking bans are public policies, including legal prohibitions and occupational health and safety regulations, that restrict smoking in public places. ... For early system failures, see failure rate. ... A U.S. state is any one of the 50 states which have membership of the federation known as the United States of America (USA or U.S.). The separate state governments and the U.S. federal government share sovereignty. ... Criminal law (also known as penal law) is the body of law that regulates governmental sanctions (such as imprisonment and/or fines) as retaliation for crimes against the social order. ... The Chicago Police Department arrests a man A protester is arrested during a demonstration. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Drug abuse has a wide range of definitions, all of them relating to the use, misuse or overuse of a psychoactive drug or performance enhancing drug for a non-therapeutic or non-medical effect. ... Bedrest as a medical treatment refers to staying in bed day and night as a treatment for an illness or medical condition, especially when prescribed or chosen rather than resulting from severe prostration or imminent death. ... A caesarean section (cesarean section AE), or c-section, is a form of childbirth in which a surgical incision is made through a mothers abdomen (laparotomy) and uterus (hysterotomy) to deliver one or more babies. ... A newborn at 45 seconds. ... Assault With a Deadly Weapon is the term used to describe the act of threatening to harm one or more people by using a weapon (usually a firearm). ... Capital Saint Paul Largest city Minneapolis Area  Ranked 12th  - Total 87,014 sq mi (225,365 km²)  - Width 250 miles (400 km)  - Length 400 miles (645 km)  - % water 8. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... This article does not cite its references or sources. ... Substance abuse refers to the overindulgence in and dependence on a stimulant, depressant, chemical substance, herb (plant) or fungus leading to effects that are detrimental to the individuals physical health or mental health, or the welfare of others. ... Involuntary commitment is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a mental health law to commit a person to a mental hospital, insane asylum or psychiatric ward without their informed consent, against their will or over their protests. ... A human infant Infant is a formal term for the word baby, the youngest category of a child. ... Addiction is a compulsion to repeat a behaviour regardless of its consequences. ... A drug test is a process using some kind of biological matter taken from an individual to determine previous drug use. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... In the United States, the child welfare system is a set of government services designed to protect children and encourage family stability. ... World map showing the location of Asia. ... The highlighted area in the map is what is commonly known as mainland China. Mainland China (Simplified Chinese: 中国大陆; Traditional Chinese: 中國大陸; pinyin: Zhōnggúo Dàlù; literally The Chinese Massive Landmass or Continental China) is an informal (disputed — see talk page) geographical term which is usually synonymous with the area... Sex-selective abortion is the practice of aborting a fetus after a determination (usually by ultrasound but also rarely by amniocentesis or another procedure) that the fetus is an undesired sex. ...

Example cases

• Jennifer Johnson of Seminole County, Florida was convicted under a drug trafficking law in 1989. It was alleged that, in consuming cocaine during her pregnancy, she had delivered a controlled substance to a minor via the umbilical cord. She was sentenced to one-year in a drug treatment program, 14 years probation, and 200 hours of community service. Johnson appealed and Supreme Court of Florida overturned its decision to convict her in 1992. ^[8]
• Cornelia Whitner of Central, South Carolina pled guilty in 1992 to a charge of criminal child neglect after she was discovered to have used cocaine while pregnant. Sentenced to eight years in prison, she petitioned the Court of Appeals 16 months later, claiming that she had been given ineffective counsel because her lawyer had failed to inform her that the charges laid against her might not be applicable given the legal status of a fetus. However, in the 1997 case Whitner v. South Carolina, the Supreme Court of South Carolina upheld its prosecution of Whitner. ^{[9] [10] [11]}
• A woman from Winnipeg, Manitoba woman who had an inhalant addiction in 1996. She had three previous children, and, when she became pregnant a fourth time, Winnipeg Child and Family Services sought a court order permitting her to be committed to a drug rehabilitation facility for the remaining duration of her pregnancy. A judge agreed that the woman should be taken into custody. However, the decision was overturned by the Manitoba Court of Appeal. ^[12]
• Melissa Ann Rowland of Salt Lake City, Utah was charged with murder in 2004 after her refusal to undergo a caesarean section resulted in one of the two in her twin pregnancy being stillborn. ^[13] Rowland was later sentenced to 18 months probation as a result of secondary charge of child endangerment. ^[14]
• Gov. Jeb Bush sought appointment of a legal guardian to protect the fetus of a developmentally-disabled rape victim in 2003. The woman, who could not assist police in identifying her assailant, was raped while living in a group home in Orlando, Florida. ^[15] She gave birth to a child in September 2003. ^[16]

Seminole County is the name of several counties in the United States: Seminole County, Florida Seminole County, Georgia Seminole County, Oklahoma This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Retail selling Street selling is the bottom of the chain and can be accomplished through purchasing from prostitutes, through cloaked retail stores or refuse houses for users in the act located in red-light districts which often also deal in paraphernalia, dealers marketing merriment at night clubs and other events... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this exact name. ... In law, a person who is not yet a legal adult is known as a minor (known in some places as an infant or juvenile). ... A newborn at 45 seconds. ... Drug treatment can mean either: Treatment of illness with drugs - see Medicine. ... Probation is the suspension of a prison or jail sentence - the criminal who is on probation has been convicted of a crime, but instead of serving prison time, has been found by the Court to be amenable to probation and will be returned to the community for a period in... Community service refers to service that a person performs for the benefit of his or her local community. ... The Florida Supreme Court is the highest court in the State of Florida. ... Central is a town located in Pickens County, South Carolina. ... In legal terminology, a plea is simply an answer to a claim made by someone in a civil or criminal case under common law using the adversary system. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Cocaine is a crystalline tropane alkaloid that is obtained from the leaves of the coca plant. ... Court of Appeals is the title of certain appellate courts in various jurisdictions. ... Ineffective assistance of counsel is an issue raised in legal malpractice suits and in appeals in criminal cases where a criminal defendant asserts that their criminal conviction occurred because their attorney failed to properly defend the case. ... The South Carolina Supreme Court is the highest court in the state of South Carolina. ... Motto: Template:Unhide = Unum Cum Virtute Multorum (One With the Strength of Many) Location City Information Established: 1738 (Fort Rouge), 1873 (City of Winnipeg) Area: 465. ... A coke bottle after being filled with blue paint for the means of solvent abuse in Townsville, Australia. ... Addiction is a chronic disorder proposed to be precipitated by a combination of genetic, biological/pharmacological and social factors. ... A court order is an official proclamation by a judge (or panel of judges) that defines the legal relationships between the parties before the court and requires or authorizes the carrying out of certain steps by one or more parties to a case. ... Involuntary commitment is the practice of using legal means or forms as part of a mental health law to commit a person to a mental hospital, insane asylum or psychiatric ward without their informed consent, against their will or over their protests. ... Drug rehabilitation (often shortened to drug rehab or just rehab) is an umbrella term for the processes of medical and/or psychotherapeutic treatment, for dependency on psychoactive substances such as alcohol, prescription drugs , and so-called street drugs such as cocaine, heroin or amphetamines. ... The Manitoba Court of Appeal is the highest Court of Appeal in the Canadian province of Manitoba. ... The Salt Lake Temple of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints is Salt Lake Citys top tourist draw. ... Official language(s) English Capital Salt Lake City Largest city Salt Lake City Area  Ranked 13th  - Total 84,876 sq mi (219,887 km²)  - Width 270 miles (435 km)  - Length 350 miles (565 km)  - % water 3. ... A caesarean section (cesarean section AE), or c-section, is a form of childbirth in which a surgical incision is made through a mothers abdomen (laparotomy) and uterus (hysterotomy) to deliver one or more babies. ... Fraternal twin boys in the tub Twins in animal biology is a case of multiple birth in which the mother gives birth to two offspring from the same pregnancy. ... The expected result of pregnancy is the birth of a living child. ... This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... A governor is also a device that regulates the speed of a machine. ... John Ellis Jeb Bush (born February 11, 1953), a Republican, is the forty-third and current Governor of Florida. ... A legal guardian is a person who has the legal authority (and the corresponding duty) to care for the personal and property interests of another person, called a ward. ... Developmental Disability (also called mental handicap and, as defined by the UK Mental Health Act 1983), mental impairment and severe mental impairment) is a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic motor and language skills (milestones) during childhood, and a significantly below-normal global intellectual capacity as... Group Home is a Hip Hop duo, consisting of members Lil Dap and Melachi the Nutcracker. ... Nickname: The City Beautiful, O-Town Location in Orange County and the state of Florida. ... 2003 : January - February - March - April - May - June - July - August - September - October - November - December A timeline of events in the news for September, 2003. ...

Debate

The debate around moral rights usually revolves around two main questions. Is the fetus a person? And if so, do any rights that it has as a person outweigh the rights of its parents?

If the fetus is a person then it would have the rights accorded to persons. However, challenges to the personhood of the fetus have been proposed. The ethicist Peter Singer has argued that our notion of personhood relates to a being's possession of the capacities for reason and self-consciousness, and that therefore Homo sapiens without these characteristics should not be considered persons.^[17] Since children in the fetal and even infant stages of development do not possess such capacities, Singer argues that they should not be considered persons. A person is defined by philosophers as a being who is in possession of a range of psychological capacities that are regarded as both necessary and sufficient to fulfill the requirements of personhood. ... Peter Albert David Singer (born July 6, 1946 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia) is an Australian Humanist and philosopher. ...

Critics of this view argue that individuals comatose states, or perhaps individuals who are simply unconscious, could not be considered persons as they would not meet Singer's criteria at that point of time. Such critics also claim that such a view could conflict with the identity argument which states that either the individual in question is a person or he or she is not as it seems to allow some ambiguity as to precisely when a being is a person. ^[18]

If fetal rights are agreed upon then another relevant question arises in cases where these conflict with the rights of parents. Does the right of the fetus (e.g. to live or to be born in a healthy state) outweigh the parent's rights to autonomy? Or do the parent's rights to autonomy outweigh the fetal rights? In the debate on abortion those who consider themselves "pro-life" generally believe that the fetus' rights outweigh the parent's rights. People who are "pro-choice" but who might also agree with the personhood of the fetus generally would argue that the mother's right to autonomy supersedes the rights of the fetus as otherwise it would compel the her to act in such a way that would severely limit her freedom. ^[19] Pro-life is a term representing a variety of perspectives and activist movements in bioethics. ... It has been suggested that Anti-abortion movement be merged into this article or section. ...

See also

This article or section does not cite its references or sources. ... Embryo adoption is the adoption of frozen human embryos created through in-vitro fertilization for subsequent frozen embryo transfer (FET) into the adoptive mothers uterus. ... This baby has FAS. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) describes a spectrum of permanent and often devastating birth-defect syndromes caused by maternal consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. ... Abortion, in its most common usage, refers to the voluntary or induced termination of pregnancy, generally through the use of surgical procedures or drugs. ... Fetus at eight weeks For other uses, see Fetus (disambiguation). ... Fetal (U.S. English; Foetal UK English) development is the process in which a fetus (U.S. English; Foetus UK English) develops during gestation, from the times of conception until birth. ... Nutrition and pregnancy refers to the nutrient intake, and dietary planning that is undertook before, during and after pregnancy. ... To meet Wikipedias quality standards, this article or section may require cleanup. ... The paternal rights and abortion issue is an extension of both the abortion debate and the fathers rights movement. ... A pregnant woman near the end of her term Pregnancy is the carrying of one or more embryos or fetuses by female mammals, including humans, inside their bodies. ... // Pregnancy Discrimination Pregnancy Discrimination occurs when expectant women are fired, not hired, or otherwise discriminated against due to their pregnancy or intention to become pregnant. ... Prenatal care refers to the regular routine check-ups recommended for women before and during pregnancy. ... Sex-selective abortion is the practice of aborting a fetus after a determination (usually by ultrasound but also rarely by amniocentesis or another procedure) that the fetus is an undesired sex. ... There exists a widespread controversy over stem cell research, which arises from the techniques used in the creation and usage of stem cells. ... Signing ceremony at the White House, April 1, 2004. ...

References

1. ^ Congress of the United States of America. (March 25, 2004). Unborn Victims of Violence Act of 2004. H.R.1997. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
2. ^ "The Bush Administration's Plan for Fetal Care." (February 07, 2002). On Point. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
3. ^ Abortion Laws of the World. Annual Review of Population Law. Retrieved July 14, 2006.
4. ^ Farmer, Rebecca. National Organization for Women. (2001). "Fetal Rights" Initiatives Concern Abortion Rights Supporters. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
5. ^ Rosenburg, J. (2004). Low Birth Weight Is Linked to Timing of Prenatal Care and Other Maternal Factors. International Family Planning Perspectives, 30 (2). Retrieved July 31, 2006.
6. ^ "Legislators Want To Ban Pregnant Women From Smoking." (June 14, 2006). The Hometown Channel. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
7. ^ ^{a b c d e} Center for Reproductive Rights. (September 2000). Punishing Women for Their Behavior During Pregnancy: An Approach That Undermines Women’s Health and Children’s Interests. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
8. ^ American Civil Liberties Union. (September 30, 1997). Coercive and Punitive Governmental Responses to Women's Conduct During Pregnancy. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
9. ^ Costello, Robert G. (2001). Fetal Endangerment: A Challenge For Criminal Law. Boalt Journal of Criminal Law, 4. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
10. ^ Lewin, Tamar. (October 30, 1997). "Abuse Laws Cover Fetus, a High Court Rules." The New York Times. Retrieved July 30, 2006.
11. ^ v. State, 328 S.C. 1, 492 S.E.2d 777 (1997)
12. ^ Robinson, B.A. Ontario Consultants for Religious Tolerance. (November 14, 1997). Balancing the Rights of the Woman and Her Fetus. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
13. ^ "Mother charged in Caesarean row." (March 12, 2004). BBC News. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
14. ^ Sage, Alexandria. (April 29, 2004). "Utah C-Section Mom Gets Probation." CBS News. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
15. ^ Canedy, Dana. (May 15, 2003). "Gov. Jeb Bush to Seek Guardian for Fetus of Rape Victim." The New York Times. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
16. ^ "Disabled Rape Victim Gives Birth." (September 1, 2003). CBS News. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
17. ^ Singer, Peter. (1995). Abortion. In In Ted Honderich (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, pp. 2-3. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
18. ^ Pruss, Alexander R. (November 25, 2001). I Was Once a Fetus: An Identity-Based Argument Against Abortion. Retrieved July 31, 2006.
19. ^ Jarvis Thomson, Judith. (1971). A Defense of Abortion. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1 (1), p. 47. Retrieved April 28, 2006.

April 28 is the 118th day of the year (119th in leap years) in the Gregorian Calendar, with 247 days remaining. ... 2006 (MMVI) is a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. ...

External links

• FetalRights.com
• Fetal Alcohol and Drug Unit
• National Advocates for Pregnant Women
• American Pregnancy Association: Mercury Levels in Fish
• March of Dimes: Drinking Alcohol During Pregnancy