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What is science?
There are different theories of what "science" is.
According to empiricism, "scientific" theories are objective, empirically testable, and "predictive" — they predict empirical results that can be checked and possibly contradicted. Empiricism (greek εμπειÏισμός, from empirical, latin experientia - the experience) is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition or faith; that is, empirical research and a posteriori inductive reasoning rather than...
Falsifiability is an important concept in the philosophy of science that amounts to the apparently paradoxical idea that a proposition or theory cannot be scientific if it does not admit consideration of the possibility of its being false. ...
In contrast, scientific realism defines science in terms of ontology: science attempts to identify "things" in the world, their causal powers, the mechanisms through which they exercise those powers, and the sources of those powers in terms of the thing's structure or internal nature. Scientific realism is view in the philosophy of science about the nature of scientific success. ...
In philosophy, ontology (from the Greek όντος = prep. ...
Even in the empiricist tradition, we must be careful to understand that "prediction" refers to the outcome of an experiment or study, rather than to literally predicting the future. For example, to say, "a paleontologist may make predictions about finding a certain type of dinosaur" is consistent with the empiricist's use of prediction. On the other hand, sciences like geology or meteorology need not be able to make accurate predictions about earthquakes or the weather to qualify as sciences. Empiricist philosopher, Karl Popper also argued that certain verification is impossible and that scientific hypotheses can only be falsified (falsification). Karl Popper Sir Karl Raimund Popper (July 28, 1902 – September 17, 1994), was an Austrian-born philosopher of science. ...
In the context of hardware and software systems, formal verification is the act of proving or disproving the correctness of a system with respect to a certain formal specification or property, using formal methods. ...
Falsification is the act of disproving a theory. ...
Positivism, a form of empiricism, advocates using science, as defined by empiricism, to govern human affairs. Because of their close affiliation, the terms "positivism" and "empiricism" are often used interchangeably. Both have been subjected to devastating criticisms: Positivism can have several meanings. ...
- W. V. Quine demonstrated the impossibility of a theory-independent observation language, so the very notion of testing theories with facts is problematic.
- Observations are always theory-laden. Thomas Kuhn demonstrated that science always involves "paradigms," sets of (often unstated) assumptions, rules, practices, etc. and that transitions from one paradigm to another generally does not involve verification or falsification of scientific theories. Moreover, he demonstrated that science has not proceeded historically as the steady accumulation of facts, as the empiricist model implies.
- Philosopher Roy Bhaskar [1] has shown that the practice of scientific experiments presumes a "layered" ontology in which empirical reality is only the most evident layer, but there must also be actual and real layers. According to Bhaskar, science is knowledge of the real, and empiricism makes a crucial error of reasoning — the epistemic fallacy. This is the mistake of confusing the limits of human knowledge with the limits of reality itself.
For more information, see Theories and sociology of the history of science. W. V. Quine Willard Van Orman Quine (June 25, 1908 - December 25, 2000) was one of the most influential American philosophers and logicians of the 20th century. ...
Facts is one of the following: The plural of the word fact. ...
Thomas Samuel Kuhn (July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American intellectual who wrote extensively on the history of science and developed several important notions in the philosophy of science. ...
For alternative meanings see Paradigm (disambiguation). ...
The sociology and philosophy of science, as well as the entire field of science studies, have in the 20th century been preoccupied with the question of large-scale patterns and trends in the development of science, and asking questions about how science works both in a philosophical and practical sense. ...
Some counter-intuitive findings Some of the findings of science can be very counter-intuitive. Atomic theory, for example, implies that a granite boulder which appears a heavy, hard, solid, grey object is actually a combination of subatomic particles with none of these properties, moving very rapidly in an area consisting mostly of empty space. Many of humanity's preconceived notions about the workings of the universe have been challenged by new scientific discoveries. Something is counter-intuitive if it does not seem likely to be true using the tool of human intuition or gut-feeling to perceive reality. ...
The atomic theory is a theory of the nature of matter. ...
Particles explode from the collision point of two relativistic velocity (100 GeV) gold ions in the STAR detector of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. ...
Naïve physics or folk physics is the untrained human perception of basic physical phenomena. ...
The deepest visible-light image of the cosmos. ...
Scientific method Main article: Scientific method The characterization phase can require extended and extensive study, even centuries. ...
The terms "model", "hypothesis", "theory" and "law" have different meanings in science than in colloquial speech. Scientists use the term model to mean a description of something, specifically one which can be used to make predictions which can be tested by experiment or observation. A hypothesis is a contention that has not (yet) been either well supported nor ruled out by experiment. A physical law or a law of nature is a scientific generalization based on empirical observations. A model is a substitute for or an abstraction of a specific thing. ...
A hypothesis (assumption in ancient Greek) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. ...
The word theory has a number distinct meanings depending on the context. ...
A physical law or a law of nature is a scientific generalization based on empirical observations. ...
From Latin ex- + -periri (akin to periculum attempt). ...
For railroad use of the term observation, see observation car. ...
The word theory is misunderstood particularly often by laymen. The common usage of the word "theory" refers to ideas that have no firm proof or support; in contrast, scientists usually use this word to refer to bodies of ideas that make specific predictions. To say "the apple fell" is to state a fact, whereas Newton's theory of universal gravitation is a body of ideas that allows a scientist to explain why the apple fell and make predictions about other falling objects. It has been suggested that Law of universal gravitation be merged into this article or section. ...
An especially fruitful theory that has withstood the test of time and has an overwhelming quantity of evidence supporting it is considered to be "proven" in the scientific sense. Some universally accepted models such as heliocentric theory and atomic theory are so well-established that it is impossible to imagine them ever being falsified. Others, such as relativity, electromagnetism and biological evolution have survived rigorous empirical testing without being contradicted, but it is nevertheless conceivable that they will some day be supplanted. Younger theories such as string theory may provide promising ideas, but have yet to receive the same level of scrutiny. In astronomy, heliocentrism is the theory that the Sun is at the center of the Universe and/or the Solar System. ...
The atomic theory is a theory of the nature of matter. ...
In physics, the term relativity is used in several related contexts: Galileo first developed the principle of relativity, being the postulate that the laws of physics should take the same form for all observers in uniform motion with respect to each other. ...
Electromagnetism is the physics of electromagnetic fields: a field, encompassing all of space, comprised of electrical and magnetic fields. ...
Charles Darwin, father of the theory of evolution by natural selection. ...
String theory is a physical model whose fundamental building blocks are one-dimensional extended objects (strings) rather than the zero-dimensional points (particles) that were the basis of most earlier physics. ...
Scientists never claim absolute knowledge. Unlike a mathematical proof, a "proven" scientific theory is always open to falsification if new evidence is presented. Even the most basic and fundamental theories may turn out to be imperfect if new observations are inconsistent with them. In mathematics, a proof is a demonstration that, given certain axioms, some statement of interest is necessarily true. ...
Falsifiability is an important concept in the philosophy of science that amounts to the apparently paradoxical idea that a proposition or theory cannot be scientific if it does not admit consideration of the possibility of its being false. ...
Newton's law of gravitation is a famous example of a law which was found not to hold in experiments involving motion at speeds close to the speed of light or in close proximity to strong gravitational fields. Outside those conditions, Newton's Laws remain an excellent model of motion and gravity. Because general relativity accounts for all of the phenomena that Newton's Laws do and more, general relativity is now regarded as a better theory. Sir Isaac Newton in Godfrey Knellers 1689 portrait Sir Isaac Newton (25 December 1642 – 20 March 1727 by the Julian calendar in use in England at the time; or 4 January 1643 – 31 March 1727 by the Gregorian calendar) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, philosopher, and alchemist who...
Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies. ...
Two-dimensional visualization of space-time distortion. ...
Philosophy of science Main article: Philosophy of science The philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy which studies the philosophical foundations, assumptions, and implications of science, including the natural sciences such as physics and biology, and the social sciences, such as psychology and economics. ...
Science's effectiveness has made it a subject of much philosophical speculation. The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge, and its ethical implications. It has proved remarkably difficult to provide an account of the scientific method that can serve to distinguish science from non-science. The term philosophy derives from a combination of the Greek words philos meaning love and sophia meaning wisdom. ...
The characterization phase can require extended and extensive study, even centuries. ...
Mathematics and the scientific method Mathematics is essential to many sciences. The most important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific models. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require mathematical models and extensive use of mathematics. Mathematical branches most often used in science include calculus and statistics, although virtually every branch of mathematics has applications, even "pure" areas such as number theory and topology. Mathematics is most prevalent in physics, but less so in chemistry, biology, and some social sciences. Main article: History of mathematics The evolution of mathematics can be seen to be an ever increasing series of abstractions. ...
For other uses of the term calculus see calculus (disambiguation) Calculus is a central branch of mathematics, developed from algebra and geometry, and built on two major complementary ideas. ...
Statistics is a type of data analysis whose practice includes the planning, summarizing, and interpreting of observations of a system possibly followed by predicting or forecasting of future events based on a mathematical model of the system being observed. ...
Traditionally, number theory is that branch of pure mathematics concerned with the properties of integers. ...
Topology (Greek topos, place and logos, study) is a branch of mathematics concerned with the study of topological spaces. ...
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. ...
Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. In either case, the fact that mathematics is such a useful tool in describing the universe is a central issue in the philosophy of mathematics. Philosophy of mathematics is that branch of philosophy which attempts to answer questions such as: why is mathematics useful in describing nature?, in which sense(s), if any, do mathematical entities such as numbers exist? and why and how are mathematical statements true?. Various approaches to answering these questions will...
See: Eugene Wigner, The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences. Eugene Wigner (left) and Alvin Weinberg Eugene Paul Wigner (Hungarian Wigner Pál Jenő) (November 17, 1902 – January 1, 1995) was a Hungarian physicist and mathematician. ...
The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences, published by physicist Eugene Wigner in 1960, argues that the capacity of mathematics to successfully predict events in physics cannot be a coincidence, but must reflect some larger or deeper or simpler truth in both. ...
Richard Feynman said "Mathematics is not real, but it feels real. Where is this place?", while Bertrand Russell's favourite definition of mathematics was "the subject in which we never know what we are talking about nor whether what we are saying is right." Richard Phillips Feynman (May 11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) (surname pronounced FINE-man; in IPA) was one of the most influential American physicists of the 20th century, expanding greatly the theory of quantum electrodynamics. ...
Bertrand Russell Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM (18 May 1872–2 February 1970) was an influential British mathematician, philosopher, and logician, working mostly in the 20th century. ...
Goals of science
 The incredible power of science to allow the drastic manipulation of the physical world stems directly from its ability to elucidate the foundational mechanisms which underlie nature's processes. Here, an image of "artificial" bioluminescence which has been induced in a tobacco plant by the use of genetic engineering. Despite popular impressions of science, it is not the goal of science to answer all questions. The goal of the physical sciences is to answer only those that pertain to physical reality. Also, science cannot possibly address all possible questions, so the choice of which questions to answer becomes important. Science does not and can not produce absolute and unquestionable truth. Rather, physical science often tests hypotheses about some aspect of the physical world, and when necessary revises or replaces it in light of new observations or data. File links The following pages link to this file: Genetic engineering Bioluminescence ...
File links The following pages link to this file: Genetic engineering Bioluminescence ...
The deepest visible-light image of the universe, the Hubble Ultra Deep Field. ...
Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by a living organism as the result of a chemical reaction during which chemical energy is converted to light energy. ...
An iconic image of genetic engineering; this 1986 autoluminograph of a glowing transgenic tobacco plant bearing the luciferase gene of fireflys strikingly demonstrates the power and potential of genetic manipulation. ...
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. ...
Much of this article is about philosophical ideas regarding what sorts of things are called true, and the meaning of the word truth. ...
A hypothesis (assumption in ancient Greek) is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon. ...
A datum is a statement accepted at face value (a given). Data is the plural of datum. ...
According to empiricism, science does not make any statements about how nature actually "is"; science can only make conclusions about our observations of nature. Both scientists and the people who accept science believe, and more importantly, act as if nature actually "is" as science claims. Still, this is only a problem if we accept the empiricist notion of science. Empiricism (greek εμπειÏισμός, from empirical, latin experientia - the experience) is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition or faith; that is, empirical research and a posteriori inductive reasoning rather than...
Science is not a source of subjective value judgements, though it can certainly speak to matters of ethics and public policy by pointing to the likely consequences of actions. However, science can't tell us which of those consequences to desire or which is 'best'. What one projects from the currently most reasonable scientific hypothesis onto other realms of interest is not a scientific issue, and the scientific method offers no assistance for those who wish to do so. Scientific justification (or refutation) for many things is, nevertheless, often claimed. Of course, value judgements are intrinsic to science itself. For example, science values truth and knowledge. Ethics is a general term for what is often described as the science (study) of morality. In philosophy, ethical behavior is that which is good or right. ...
The characterization phase can require extended and extensive study, even centuries. ...
The underlying goal or purpose of science to society and individuals is to produce useful models of reality. It has been said that it is virtually impossible to make inferences from human senses which actually describe what “is.” On the other hand, as stated, science can make predictions based on observations. These predictions often benefit society or human individuals who make use of them. For example, Newtonian physics, and in more extreme cases relativity allow us to predict anything from the effect one moving billiard ball will have on another to things like trajectories of space shuttles and satellites. The social sciences allow us to predict (with limited accuracy for now) things like economic turbulence and also to better understand human behavior and to produce useful models of society and to work more empirically with government policies. Chemistry and biology together have transformed our ability to use and predict chemical and biological reactions and scenarios. In modern times though, these segregated scientific disciplines (notably the latter two) are more often being used together in conjunction to produce more complete models and tools. Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies. ...
In physics, the term relativity is used in several related contexts: Galileo first developed the principle of relativity, being the postulate that the laws of physics should take the same form for all observers in uniform motion with respect to each other. ...
Chemistry (in Greek: χημεία) is the science of matter and its interactions with energy and itself (see physics, biology). ...
Main articles: Life All organisms (viruses not included) consist of cells, which in turn, are based on a common carbon-based biochemistry. ...
In short, science produces useful models which allow us to make often useful predictions. Science attempts to describe what is, but avoids trying to determine what is (which is for practical reasons impossible). Science is a useful tool. . . it is a growing body of understanding that allows us to contend more effectively with our surroundings and to better adapt and evolve as a social whole as well as independently.
Individualism is a tacit assumption underlying most empiricist accounts of science which treat science as if it were purely a matter of a single individual confronting nature, testing and predicting hypotheses. In fact, science is always a collective activity conducted by a scientific community. This can be demonstrated many ways, perhaps the most fundamental and trivial of which is that scientific results must be communicated with language. Thus the values of scientific communities permeate the science they produce. Individualism is a political and social philosophy that emphasizes individual liberty, belief in the primary importance of the individual and in the virtues of self-reliance and personal independence. ...
A community is an amalgamation of living things that share an environment. ...
Locations of science Science is practiced in universities and other scientific institutes as well as in the field; as such it is a solid vocation in academia, but is also practiced by amateurs, who typically engage in the observational part of science. A professor giving a lecture at the Helsinki University of Technology A university is an institution of higher education and of research, which grants academic degrees. ...
Plato is credited with the inception of academia: the body of knowledge, its development and transmission across generations. ...
The word amateur has at least two connotations. ...
For railroad use of the term observation, see observation car. ...
Workers in corporate research laboratories also practice science, although their results are often deemed trade secrets and not published in public journals. Corporate and university scientists often cooperate, with the university scientists focusing on basic research and the corporate scientists applying their findings to a specific technology of interest to the company. Biochemistry laboratory at the University of Cologne. ...
A trade secret is a confidential practice, method, process, design, or other information used by a company to compete with other businesses. ...
Technology (Gr. ...
The methods of science are also practiced in many places to achieve specific goals. For example:
- Quality control in manufacturing facilities (for example, a microbiologist in a cheese factory ensures that cultures contain the proper species of bacteria)
- Obtaining and processing crime scene evidence (forensics)
- Monitoring compliance with environmental laws
- Performing medical tests to help physicians evaluate the health of their patients
- Investigating the causes of a disaster (such as a bridge collapse or airline crash)
Manufacturing is the transformation of raw materials into finished goods for sale, or intermediate processes involving the production or finishing of semi-manufactures. ...
A crime scene is a location where an illegal act took place, and comprises the area from which most of the physical evidence is retrieved by forensic scientists. ...
Forensics or forensic science is the application of science to questions which are of interest to the legal system as well as social sciences such as archaeology. ...
Environmental law is a body of law which addresses the system of complex and interlocking rules which seeks to protect from destruction or development the natural environment which may be endangered by human encroachment. ...
A medical test is any kind of diagnostic procedure performed for health reasons. ...
Fields of science
Natural sciences The lunar farside as seen from Apollo 11 Natural science is the study of the physical, nonhuman aspects of the Earth and the universe around us. ...
In ancient Greece and other early civilizations, astronomy consisted largely of astrometry, measuring positions of stars and planets in the sky. ...
Main articles: Life All organisms (viruses not included) consist of cells, which in turn, are based on a common carbon-based biochemistry. ...
Chemistry (in Greek: χημεία) is the science of matter and its interactions with energy and itself (see physics, biology). ...
Earth science (also known as geoscience or the geosciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. ...
Ecology is sometimes used as an incorrect synonym for the natural environment. ...
Physical science is an emcompassing term for the branches of natural science, and science (generally), that study non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. ...
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. ...
The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. ...
Acoustics is a branch of physics and is the study of sound, mechanical waves in gases, liquids, and solids. ...
Astrodynamics is the study of the motion of rockets, missiles, and space vehicles, as determined from Sir Isaac Newtons laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. ...
In ancient Greece and other early civilizations, astronomy consisted largely of astrometry, measuring positions of stars and planets in the sky. ...
Spiral Galaxy ESO 269-57 Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the physical properties (luminosity, density, temperature and chemical composition) of astronomical objects such as stars, galaxies, and the interstellar medium, as well as their interactions. ...
Atomic, molecular, and optical physics is the study of matter-matter and light-matter interactions on the scale of single atoms or structures containing a few atoms. ...
Biophysics (also biological physics) is an interdisciplinary science that applies theories and methods of the physical sciences to questions of biology. ...
Computational physics is the study and implementation of numerical algorithms in order to solve problems in physics for which a quantitative theory already exists. ...
Condensed matter physics (or many-body physics) is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic physical properties of matter. ...
Look up Cosmology in Wiktionary, the free dictionary For the jazz band, see: Cosmology (band) Cosmology, from the Greek: κοσμολογία (cosmologia, κόσμος (cosmos) world + λογια (logia) discourse) is the study of the universe in its totality and by extension mans place in it. ...
Cryogenics is the study of very low temperatures or the production of the same, and is often confused with cryobiology, the study of the effect of low temperatures on organisms, or the study of cryopreservation. ...
The word dynamics can refer to: a branch of mechanics; see dynamics (mechanics) the volume of music; see dynamics (music) DYNAMIC+ This is a disambiguation page — a navigational aid which lists other pages that might otherwise share the same title. ...
This article or section should be merged with Fluid mechanics Fluid dynamics is the study of fluids (liquids and gases) in motion, and the effect of the fluid motion on fluid boundaries, such as solid containers or other fluids. ...
Materials physics is a field of physics concerned with the physical properties of materials. ...
Mathematical physics is a scientific discipline aimed at studying and solving problems inspired by physics within a mathematically rigorous framework. ...
Mechanics refers to: a craft relating to machinery (from the Latin mechanicus, from the Greek mechanikos, meaning one skilled in machines), or a range of disciplines in science and engineering. ...
Nuclear physics is the branch of physics concerned with the nucleus of the atom. ...
See also list of optical topics. ...
Particles explode from the collision point of two relativistic velocity (100 GeV) gold ions in the STAR detector of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider. ...
A Plasma lamp In physics and chemistry, a plasma is an ionized gas, and is usually considered to be a distinct phase of matter. ...
Polymer physics is the physics and chemistry of polymer engineering, as well as the reactions involving degradation and polymerisation of polymers and monomers respectively. ...
Statics is the branch of physics that is concerned with physical systems that are in static equilibrium, that is, in a state where the relative positions of subsystems do not vary over time, or where components and structures are at rest under the action of external forces of equilibrium. ...
Definitions Ackermann steering geometry Camber angle Caster angle Circle of forces Live axle Oversteer Roll center Toe Understeer Unsprung weight Performance Driving Techniques Double declutching Handbrake turn Heel-and-Toe Left-foot braking Opposite lock See also important publications in vehicle dynamics Categories: Stub ...
Chemistry (in Greek: χημεία) is the science of matter and its interactions with energy and itself (see physics, biology). ...
Analytical chemistry is the analysis of material samples to gain an understanding of their chemical composition and structure. ...
Biochemistry is the chemistry of life. ...
Computational chemistry is a branch of theoretical chemistry whose major goals are to create efficient mathematical approximations and computer programs that calculate the properties of molecules (such as total energy, dipole and quadrupole moment, vibrational frequencies, reactivity and other diverse spectroscopic quantitities and cross sections for collision of molecules with...
Electrochemistry is the science of the reactions that can take place at the interface of an electronic conductor (the electrode, which can be a metal or a semiconductor including graphite) and an ionic conductor (the electrolyte). ...
Inorganic chemistry is the branch of chemistry concerned with the properties and reactions of inorganic compounds. ...
The Materials Science Tetrahedron Materials science is a multidisciplinary field focusing on functional solids, whether the function served is structural, electronic, thermal, chemical, magnetic, optical, or some combination of these. ...
Organic chemistry is the scientific study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and synthesis of organic compounds that by definition contain carbon. ...
Physical chemistry is the study of the physical basis of chemical systems and processes. ...
Quantum chemistry is a branch of theoretical chemistry, which applies quantum mechanics to problems in chemistry. ...
Spectroscopy is the study of spectra, that is, the dependence of physical quantities on frequency. ...
Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, involves the study of the relative spatial arrangement of atoms within molecules. ...
Thermochemistry is the application of thermodynamics to chemistry. ...
Earth science (also known as geoscience or the geosciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. ...
It has been suggested that Geodetic datum be merged into this article or section. ...
Geology (from Greek γη- (ge-, the earth) and λογος (logos, word, reason)) is the science and study of the Earth, its composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that shape it. ...
Cumulus clouds This article needs to be cleaned up to conform to a higher standard of quality. ...
Oceanography (from Ocean + Greek γράφειν = write), also called oceanology and marine science is the study of the earths oceans and their interlinked ecosystems and chemical and physical processes. ...
A paleontologist carefully chips rock from a column of dinosaur vertebrae. ...
Limnology is a discipline that concerns the study of in-land waters (both saline and fresh), specifically lakes, ponds and rivers (both natural and manmade), including their biological, physical, chemical, and hydrological aspects. ...
Seismology (from the Greek seismos = earthquake and logos = word) is the scientific study of earthquakes and the movement of waves through the Earth. ...
Main articles: Life All organisms (viruses not included) consist of cells, which in turn, are based on a common carbon-based biochemistry. ...
Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the Encyclopédie. ...
Astrobiology (in Greek astron = star, bios = life and logos = word/science), also known as exobiology (Greek: exo = out) or xenobiology (Greek: xenos = foreign) is a speculative field within biology which considers the possible variety of extraterrestrial life. ...
Biochemistry is the chemistry of life. ...
Bioinformatics or computational biology is the use of techniques from applied mathematics, informatics, statistics, and computer science to solve biological problems. ...
Biophysics (also biological physics) is an interdisciplinary science that applies theories and methods of the physical sciences to questions of biology. ...
Botany is the scientific study of plant life. ...
Cell biology (also called cellular biology or cytology, from the Greek kytos, container) is an academic discipline which studies cells. ...
Greek clados = branch) or phylogenetic systematics is a branch of biology that determines the evolutionary relationships of living things based on derived similarities. ...
Cytology (also known as Cell biology) is the scientific study of cells. ...
Developmental biology is the study of the process by which organisms grow and develop. ...
Ecology is sometimes used as an incorrect synonym for the natural environment. ...
Entomology is the scientific study of insects. ...
Epidemiology is the study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events in specified populations, and the application of this study to control of health problems (Last 2001). ...
Charles Darwin, father of the theory of evolution by natural selection. ...
Evolutionary developmental biology (often referred to as evo-devo or evolution of development) is a field of biology that compares the developmental processes of different animals in an attempt to determine the ancestral relationship between organisms and how developmental processes evolved. ...
== Freshwater angelfish Freshwater biology is a field of biology that studies animal and plant life found in all areas of fresh water. ...
Genetics (from the Greek genno γεννώ= give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms. ...
Population genetics is the study of the distribution of and change in allele frequencies under the influence of the five evolutionary forces: natural selection, genetic drift, mutation, migration and nonrandom mating. ...
Genomics is the study of an organisms genome and the use of the genes. ...
Proteomics is the large-scale study of proteins, particularly their structures and functions. ...
Histology is the study of tissue sectioned as a thin slice, using a microscope. ...
Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. ...
Marine biology is the study of animal and plant life within saltwater ecosystems. ...
Microbiology (in Greek micron = small and biologia = studying life) is the study of microorganisms, including viruses, prokaryotes and simple eukaryotes. ...
Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. ...
Morphology is the following: In linguistics, morphology is the study of the structure of word forms. ...
Neuroscience is a field of study which deals with the structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology and pathology of the nervous system. ...
Ontogeny (also ontogenesis or morphogenesis) describes the origin and the development of an organism from the fertilized egg to its mature form. ...
Phycology (or algology), a subdiscipline of botany, is the study of algae. ...
In biology, Phylogenetics (Greek: phylon = race and genetic = birth) is the taxonomical classification of organisms based on how closely they are related in terms of evolutionary differences. ...
Physical anthropology, sometimes called biological anthropology, studies the mechanisms of biological evolution, genetic inheritance, human adaptability and variation, primatology, primate morphology, and the fossil record of human evolution. ...
Physiology (in Greek physis = nature and logos = word) is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living organisms. ...
Structural biology is the study of the architecture and shape of biological macromolecules--proteins and nucleic acids in particular--and what causes them to have the structures they have. ...
Taxonomy (from Greek ταξινομία (taxinomia) from the words taxis = order and nomos = law) may refer to either the classification of things, or the principles underlying the classification. ...
Toxicology (from the Greek words toxicon and logos) is the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. ...
Virology is the study of viruses and their properties. ...
Zoology (Greek zoon = animal and logos = word) is the biological discipline which involves the study of animals. ...
Social sciences The social sciences comprise the claimed application of scientific methods to the study of the human aspects of the world. ...
Anthropology (from the Greek word άνθÏωπος = human) consists of the study of humankind (see genus Homo). ...
Economics (from the Greek οίκος [oikos], house, and νÎμω [nemo], rules, hence household management) is the social science that studies the production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services in the context of the competing alternative allocations of goods and courses of action. ...
History Forums - History is Happening -Discuss all historical topics, as well as current events, in an academic setting. ...
Broadly conceived, linguistics is the scientific study of human language, and a linguist is someone who engages in this study. ...
Niccolò Machiavelli, ca 1500, became the key figure in realistic political theory, crucial to political science Political science is an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. ...
Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ...
Anthropology (from the Greek word άνθÏωπος = human) consists of the study of humankind (see genus Homo). ...
Importance and applicability Archaeology is the study of human nature and attempts to illuminate the question of what it means to be human. ...
Economics (from the Greek οίκος [oikos], house, and νÎμω [nemo], rules, hence household management) is the social science that studies the production, distribution, trade and consumption of goods and services in the context of the competing alternative allocations of goods and courses of action. ...
Broadly conceived, linguistics is the scientific study of human language, and a linguist is someone who engages in this study. ...
Niccolò Machiavelli, ca 1500, became the key figure in realistic political theory, crucial to political science Political science is an academic and research discipline that deals with the theory and practice of politics and the description and analysis of political systems and political behavior. ...
Psychology (Classical Greek: psyche = soul or mind, logos = study of) is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour, mind and thought and, frequently the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. ...
Behaviorism (or behaviourism) is an approach to psychology based on the proposition that behavior is interesting and worthy of scientific research. ...
This article or section should be merged with biological psychology Psychobiology, also called biopsychology, is the scientific study of mental functioning and behavior in relation to other biological processes, or put another way, of the effects of cognition, emotions, and experience on animal physiology. ...
Cognitive psychology is the psychological science which studies cognition, the mental processes that are hypothesised to underlie behavior. ...
Clinical psychology is the application of psychology within a clinical (health) setting. ...
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of age related changes in behavior across the life span. ...
Educational psychology and school psychology study how children and adults learn, the effectiveness of various educational strategies and tactics, and how schools function as organizations. ...
Experimental psychology describes an approach to psychology that treats it as one of the natural sciences, and therefore assumes that it is susceptible to the experimental method. ...
Forensic psychology can be broken down into 2 areas: Applying psychological techniques to help in the prosecution of criminals. ...
Health psychology is the use of psychological principles to promote health and to prevent illness (Taylor, 1990). ...
Humanistic psychology emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. ...
Industrial and organizational psychology (or I/O psychology) is the study of the behavior of people in the workplace. ...
Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes. ...
Personality psychology is a branch of psychology which studies personality and individual difference processes - that which makes us into a person. ...
For information regarding the parapsychology phenomenon of distance knowledge, see psychometry. ...
Psychology of religion involves the gathering and classification of data (usually wide ranging) and the building of the explanations of the psychological processes underlying the religious experiences and beliefs. ...
Psychophysics is the branch of psychology dealing with the relationship between physical stimuli and their perception. ...
Sensation and perception psychology is the study of the human and animal systems such as vision, audition and pain sensation. ...
Social psychology is the study of the nature and causes of human social behavior, with an emphasis on how people think towards each other and how they relate to each other. ...
Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ...
Holistic, interdisciplinary, and applied sciences Cognitive science is usually defined as the scientific study either of mind or of intelligence (e. ...
Cognitive neuroscience is a branch of neuroscience and biological psychology involving the study of the neural mechanisms of cognition, but sometimes is seen as part of a wider interdisciplinary study of cognition, cognitive science. ...
Cognitive psychology is the psychological science which studies cognition, the mental processes that are hypothesised to underlie behavior. ...
Neuropsychology is a branch of psychology that aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relates to specific psychological processes. ...
Psycholinguistics or linguistics of psychology is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, and understand language. ...
Wikibooks Wikiversity has more about this subject: School of Computer Science Open Directory Project: Computer Science Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies Belief that title science in computer science is inappropriate Categories: Computer science ...
Information Science or Informatics is the science of information. ...
Cybernetics is a theory of the communication and control of regulatory feedback. ...
Systems theory or general systems theory or systemics is an interdisciplinary field which studies systems as a whole. ...
Fundamental Concepts Library and information science (LIS) is the study of issues related to libraries. ...
Licensure and Qualifications for the Practice of Engineering The Engineers Ring The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer Engineering Disasters and Learning from Failure American Society of Engineering Education (ASEE) ASEE engineering profile (2003) PDF Categories: Architecture and engineering occupations | Engineering ...
Agricultural engineering is the discipline of engineering in agricultural, food, and biological systems. ...
Agricultural science (also called agronomy) is a broad multidisciplinary field that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic, and social sciences that are used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. ...
Vaccine Biomedical engineering is a discipline concerned with the development and manufacture of prostheses, medical devices, diagnostic devices, drugs and other therapies as well as the application of engineering pricipals to basic biological science problems. ...
In modern usage, civil engineering is a broad field of engineering that deals with the planning, construction, and maintenance of fixed structures, or public works, as they related to earth, water, or civilization and their processes. ...
Computer engineering (also sometimes called Computer systems engineering) is a specialised discipline that combines electrical engineering and computer science. ...
Electrical engineering is an engineering discipline that deals with the study and application of electricity and electromagnetism. ...
The Ford Essex V6 engine Mechanical engineering is the application of physical principles to the creation of useful devices, objects and machines. ...
Health science is the discipline of applied science which deals with human and animal health. ...
Conservation medicine is an emerging, interdisciplinary field that studies the relationship between human and animal health, and environmental conditions. ...
X-rays can reveal if a person has cavities Dentistry is the practical application of knowledge of dental science (the science of placement, arrangement, function of teeth and their supporting bones and soft tissues) to human beings. ...
Medicine on the Web NLM (National Library of Medicine, contains resources for patients and healthcare professionals) Virtual Hospital (digital health sciences library by the University of Iowa) Online Medical Dictionary Collection of links to free medical resources The NanoAging Institute Medicine News Categories: Medicine | Health ...
Anatomical drawing of the human muscles from the Encyclopédie. ...
Dermatology (from Greek derma, skin) is a branch of medicine dealing with the skin, its structure, functions, and diseases, as well as its appendages (nails, hair, sweat glands). ...
The shamefulness associated with the examination of female genitalia has long inhibited the science of gynaecology. ...
Immunology is a broad branch of biomedical science that covers study of all aspects of the immune system in all organisms. ...
Internal medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of internal diseases, that is, those that affect internal organs or the body as a whole. ...
Neurology is the branch of medicine dealing with the nervous system and its disorders. ...
An optical refractor in use. ...
Pathology (in ancient Greek pathos = feeling, pain, suffering and logos = discourse or treatise, i. ...
Pathophysiology is the study of the disturbance of normal mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions that a disease causes. ...
Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics or pædiatrics) is the branch of medicine that deals with the medical care of infants and children. ...
Pharmacology (in Greek: pharmacon (φάÏμακον) is drug, and logos (λόγος) is science) is the study of how chemical substances interact with living systems. ...
Physiology (in Greek physis = nature and logos = word) is the study of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of living organisms. ...
Psychiatry is the branch of medicine that diagnoses, treats, and studies mental illness and behavioral conditions. ...
Radiology is the branch of medical science dealing with the medical use of X-rays emitted by X-ray machines or other such radiation devices for the purpose of obtaining visual information as part of medical imaging. ...
Toxicology (from the Greek words toxicon and logos) is the study of the adverse effects of chemicals on living organisms. ...
Veterinary medicine is the application of medical, diagnostic, and therapeutic principles to companion, domestic, exotic, wildlife, and production animals. ...
Military science concerns itself with the study and of the diverse technical, psychological, and practical phenomena that encompass the events that make up warfare, especially armed combat. ...
Planetary science, also known as planetology or planetary astronomy, is the science of planets and the solar system, and incorporates an interdisciplinary approach drawing from diverse sciences. ...
Environmental sciences Environmental science is the science of the interactions between the physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment, including their effects on all types of organisms but more often refers to human impact on the environment. ...
Environmental chemistry is the scientific study of the chemical and biochemical phenomena that occur in natural places. ...
Etymology The word science comes from the Latin word, scientia, which means knowledge. Latin is the language originally spoken in the region around Rome called Latium. ...
Knowledge is the awareness and understanding of facts, truths or information gained in the form of experience or learning (a posteriori), or through introspection (a priori). ...
Until the Enlightenment, the word science (or its Latin cognate) meant any systematic or exact, recorded knowledge. Science therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that philosophy had at that time. ...
The term philosophy derives from a combination of the Greek words philos meaning love and sophia meaning wisdom. ...
There was a distinction between, for example, "natural science" and "moral science," which later included what we now call philosophy, and this mirrored a distinction between "natural philosophy" and "moral philosophy." More recently, "science" has come to be restricted to what used to be called "natural science" or "natural philosophy." Natural science can be further broken down into physical science and biological science. Social science is often included in the field of science as well. The lunar farside as seen from Apollo 11 Natural science is the study of the physical, nonhuman aspects of the Earth and the universe around us. ...
Physical science is an emcompassing term for the branches of natural science, and science (generally), that study non-living systems, in contrast to the biological sciences. ...
Biology studies the variety of life (clockwise from top-left) E. coli, tree fern, gazelle, Goliath beetle Biology is the science of life (from the Greek words bios = life and logos = word). ...
Terms like SOSE (Studies of Society & the Environment) not only refer to social sciences but also studies of the environment. ...
Fields of study are often distinguished in terms of "hard sciences" and "soft sciences," and these terms (at times considered derogatory) are often synonymous with the terms natural and social science (respectively). Physics, chemistry, biology and geology are all forms of "hard sciences". Studies of anthropology, history, psychology, and sociology are sometimes called "soft sciences." Proponents of this division use the arguments that the "soft sciences" do not use the scientific method, admit anecdotal evidence, or are not mathematical, all adding up to a "lack of rigor" in their methods. Opponents of the division in the sciences counter that the "social sciences" often make systematic statistical studies in strictly controlled environments, or that these conditions are not adhered to by the natural sciences either (for example, behavioral biology relies upon fieldwork in uncontrolled environments, astronomy cannot design experiments, only observe limited conditions). Opponents of the division also point out that each of the current "hard sciences" suffered a similar "lack of rigor" in its own infancy. The willingness to question previously held truths and search for new answers resulted in a period of major scientific advancements, now known as the Scientific Revolution. ...
Chemistry (in Greek: χημεία) is the science of matter and its interactions with energy and itself (see physics, biology). ...
Main articles: Life All organisms (viruses not included) consist of cells, which in turn, are based on a common carbon-based biochemistry. ...
Geology (from Greek γη- (ge-, the earth) and λογος (logos, word, reason)) is the science and study of the Earth, its composition, structure, physical properties, history, and the processes that shape it. ...
Anthropology (from the Greek word άνθÏωπος = human) consists of the study of humankind (see genus Homo). ...
History Forums - History is Happening -Discuss all historical topics, as well as current events, in an academic setting. ...
Psychology (Classical Greek: psyche = soul or mind, logos = study of) is an academic and applied field involving the study of behaviour, mind and thought and, frequently the application of such knowledge to various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals daily lives and the treatment of mental illness. ...
Social interactions of people and their consequences are the subject of sociology studies. ...
The characterization phase can require extended and extensive study, even centuries. ...
Anecdotal evidence is evidence stemming from a single, often unreliable source which is used in an argument as if it had been scientifically or statistically proven. ...
For the medical term see rigor (medicine) Rigour (American English: rigor) has a number of meanings in relation to intellectual life and discourse. ...
Fieldwork refers to scientific activity conducted in the field, outside the laboratory, of subject matter in an as-found state, by anthropologists, geologists, botanists, archaeologists or others who study the natural or human world. ...
In ancient Greece and other early civilizations, astronomy consisted largely of astrometry, measuring positions of stars and planets in the sky. ...
The term "science" is sometimes pressed into service for new and interdisciplinary fields that make use of scientific methods at least in part, and which in any case aspire to be systematic and careful explorations of their subjects, including computer science, library and information science, and environmental science. Mathematics and computer science reside under "Q" in the Library of Congress classification, along with all else we now call science. Interdisciplinary work is that which integrates concepts across different disciplines. ...
Wikibooks Wikiversity has more about this subject: School of Computer Science Open Directory Project: Computer Science Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies Belief that title science in computer science is inappropriate Categories: Computer science ...
// Fundamental Concepts Library and information science (LIS) is the study of issues related to libraries. ...
Environmental science is the science of the interactions between the physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment, including their effects on all types of organisms but more often refers to human impact on the environment. ...
Main article: History of mathematics The evolution of mathematics can be seen to be an ever increasing series of abstractions. ...
Wikibooks Wikiversity has more about this subject: School of Computer Science Open Directory Project: Computer Science Collection of Computer Science Bibliographies Belief that title science in computer science is inappropriate Categories: Computer science ...
Library of Congress reading room The Library of Congress Classification (LCC) is a system of library classification developed by the Library of Congress. ...
Related topics - Organization and practice of science: International Council of Science (ICSU).
- For an understanding of how these fields came to be: History of Science and Technology.
- See also scientists for catalogs of people active in each of these fields.
The International Council for Science (ICSU), formerly called the International Council of Scientific Unions, was founded in 1931 as an international non-governmental organization devoted to international co-operation in the advancement of science. ...
The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history which examines how humanitys understanding of science and technology has changed over the millennia. ...
This article is about the profession. ...
See also The title given to this article is incorrect due to technical limitations. ...
These are some of the basic theories of science, which are now generally accepted as part of the basic knowledge that should be known by all children as part of their education. ...
In the West, from antiquity up to the time of the Scientific Revolution, inquiry into the workings of the universe was known as natural philosophy, and those engaged in it were known as natural philosophers. ...
Junk science is a term used to derogate purportedly scientific data, research, analyses or claims which are driven by political, financial or other questionable motives. ...
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is an independent United States government agency responsible for supporting basic science research mainly by providing research funding. ...
Pathological science is a term created by the Nobel Prize-winning chemist Irving Langmuir during a colloquium at the Knolls Research Laboratory, December 18, 1953. ...
The philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy which studies the philosophical foundations, assumptions, and implications of science, including the natural sciences such as physics and biology, and the social sciences, such as psychology and economics. ...
In philosophy of science, a protoscience is any new area of scientific endeavor in the process of becoming established. ...
Phrenology is seen today as a classic example of pseudoscience. ...
Big Science is a term used by scientists and historians of science to describe the change science which occurred in industrial nations during and after World War II. While World War I was the first war in which science played a major role in warfare and armaments, the increase in...
Scientific Computing is about constructing mathematical models, adapting numerical solution techniques and using computers to analyse scientific and engineering problems. ...
Science education is the field interested in sharing science content and process with individuals not traditionally considered part of the science community. ...
Scientific enterprise refers to science-based projects developed by, or in cooperation with, private entrepreneurs. ...
This article primarily focuses on the general concepts of matter and existence. ...
The characterization phase can require extended and extensive study, even centuries. ...
Scientific misconduct is the violation of the standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in professional scientific research. ...
In the history of science, the scientific revolution was the period that roughly began with the discoveries of Kepler, Galileo, and others at the dawn of the 17th century, and ended with the publication of the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica in 1687 by Isaac Newton. ...
// Religious and scientific modes of knowledge Generally speaking, religion and science use different methods in their effort to ascertain Truth. ...
This is a list of important publications in different fields of science. ...
A howler is a glaring blunder, usually in an academic examination; a scientific howler is a howler which shows the author to be either ignorant of some aspect of science, or to be a poor observer of the natural world (or, frequently, both). ...
External links Wikiquote has a collection of quotations by or about: - Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Classification of the Sciences
- Wikibooks - GSCE science textbook
- Science News from around the world (germ.)
- Daily Science News
- Strange Science and Technology News
- Allegations of Fake Scientific Research Hit New High -- July 2005
Wikipedia does not have an article with this exact name. ...
Wikiquote is a sister project of Wikipedia, using the same MediaWiki software. ...
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